Oil and gas potential of continental margins of the Pacific Ocean

Oil and gas basins (OGB) of active and transform margins of the Pacific Ocean are discussed. Their western and eastern parts differ substantially in the evolution, tectonic pattern, and scope of resources. In the west, marginal seas incorporated into the Cenozoic geodynamic system of deep-water basins (marginal seas) and conjugate island arcs exhibit a greater oil and gas potential (hereafter, petroleum potential) as compared to the eastern margin bounded by a deep-water trench and transformed into the framing with OGBs only in separate sectors. The abundance of siliceous rocks influenced the formation and accumulation of oil and gas in the Pacific region. The most part of hydrocarbon accumulations is related to organogenic edifices and channels of shelf fans. Oil and gas fields confined to fans on slopes of deep-water troughs of active and transform margins are also known. Proceeding from the global practice, significant petroleum potential in Russia is associated with back-arc seas of the Pacific. The poorly studied deep-water basins on slopes are worthy of special attention.     

北美东部被动大陆边缘盆地的分段性与油气勘探

北美东部被动大陆边缘是世界上最古老的完整被动大陆边缘之一,是研究被动大陆边缘发育演化的天然实验室。本文在大量国外研究成果的基础上,应用盆地构造解析方法,深入研究了北美东部被动大陆边缘盆地群的地质结构和构造演化特征,并揭示了盆地群的油气地质规律。研究认为,北美东部盆地群沉积充填和不整合面发育具有明显的分段性和差异性。以区域不整合面为界,不同段盆地可划分为不同的构造层：南段盆地可划分为两套构造层;中段南部盆地可划分为3套构造层;中段北部盆地可划分为4套构造层;而北段盆地可划分为5套构造层。盆地群整体经历了陆内裂谷—陆间裂谷—被动大陆边缘的演化过程,但不同段盆地的构造演化具有明显的分段性和迁移性：晚三叠世沉降中心位于南段盆地;早侏罗世初期迁移至中段盆地,南段大陆开始裂解;中侏罗世逐渐迁移至北段盆地,中段大陆开始裂解;早白垩世晚期,北段大陆开始裂解。受持续的抬升剥蚀及大西洋岩浆活动省的联合作用,南段盆地和中段大多数盆地缺乏油气保存条件;斯科舍盆地和大浅滩盆地是主要的含油气盆地,以上侏罗统烃源岩为主,主要发育断层—背斜圈闭和盐体刺穿圈闭,整体表现为“自生自储”和“下生上储”的特征。     

Continental margins as global oil and gas accumulation belts: The West Pacific belt

Most present-day oil- and gas-bearing (petroliferous) basins are localized in one of the five global oil and gas accumulation belts confined to continent-ocean transition zones that existed in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Two meridional belts are located in the western and eastern peripheral zones of the Pacific Ocean with intense tectonic activity during the major part of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The activity was reflected in extension of the continental crust, spreading of the oceanic crust, rapid subsidence of individual crustal blocks, volcanism, and formation of large batholiths and accretionary prisms. In this belt, the fore-arc, back-arc, inter-arc, and marginal riftogenic sedimentary basins are petroliferous.     

The Meso-Cenozoic tectonics and petroleum potential of West Siberia

The relationship between the petroleum potential of the West Siberian province and the Mesozoic to Cenozoic tectonic processes is analyzed. The studies were based on structural and isopach maps of seismogeologic megacomplexes compiled from generalized geological and geophysical data on the province at the Trofimuk Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics as well as on the results of interpretation of regional seismic CDP (common depth point) profiles. The main stages of formation of structures of different ranks and faults have been established. It is shown that the petroleum potential of the province was determined mainly by its structure and tectonic processes at the Cenozoic stage of evolution. At that time, the Koltogory–Urengoi megatrench formed, which became the main zone of hydrocarbon generation, as well as large positive structures—petroleum accumulation zones. Also, disjunctions originated, which served as channels for hydrocarbon migration from the oil source rocks of the Bazhenovo Formation to the main Neocomian and Aptian–Albian–Cenomanian petroleum reservoirs of the province.     

Movement of lithospheric plates relative to subduction zones: Formation of marginal seas and active continental margins

Subduction zones with deep seismicity are believed to be associated with the descending branches of convective flows in the mantle and are subordinated to them. Therefore, the position of subduction zones can be considered as relatively fixed with respect to the steady-state system of convective flows. The lithospheric plate overhanging a subduction zone (as a rule of continental type) may:

1. (1) either move away from the subduction zone; or

2. (2) move onto it. In the first case extensional conditions originate behind the subduction zone and the new oceanic crust of back-arc basins forms. In the second case active Andean-type continental margins with thickening of the crust and lithosphere are observed.

Behind the majority of volcanic island-arcs, along the boundary with marginal-sea basins, independent shallow seismicity belts can be traced. They are parallel to the main seismicity belts coinciding with the Benioff zones. The seismicity belts frame island-arc microplates. Island-arc microplates are assumed to be a frame of reference to calculate relative movements of the consuming and overhanging plates. Using slip vector azimuths for shallow seismicity belts in the frontal parts of the Kurile, Japan, Izu-Bonin, Mariana and Tonga—Kermadec arcs, the position of the pole of rotation of the Pacific plate with respect to the western Pacific island-arc microplates was computed. Its coordinates are 66.1°N, 119.2°W. From the global closure of plate movements it has been determined that for the past 10 m.y. the Eurasian and Indian plates have been moving away from the Western Pacific island-arc system, both rotating clockwise, around poles at 31.1°N, 164.2°W and 1.3°S, 157.5°W, respectively. This provides for the opening of the back-arc basins. At the same time South America is moving onto the subduction zone at the rate of 4 cm/yr. Some “hot spots”, such as Hawaiian, Tibesti, and those of the South Atlantic, are moving relative to the island-arc system at a very low rate, viz. 0.5–0.7 cm/yr. Presumably, the western Pacific subduction zone and “hot spots” form a single frame of reference which can generally be used for the analysis of absolute motions.     

West North Pacific typhoon track patterns and their potential connection to Tibetan Plateau snow cover

The spatial characteristics and temporal variability of the West North Pacific (WNP) typhoon tracks are studied by analyzing the spatial pattern and temporal variability of the empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) of the WNP typhoon track density function (TTDF) from 1945 to 2004. The results show that WNP typhoon tracks exhibit three principal EOF Modes. The first EOF Mode represents the contrasting “active” versus “inactive” typhoons defined by the overall frequency and life span of the typhoons that develop in the WNP basin. The second EOF shows a north–south dipole Mode in the TTDF depicting a seesaw pattern in typhoon frequency between Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia. The third EOF describes an east–west dipole Mode in TTDF depicting a zonal seesaw pattern between typhoons that tend to make landfalls in East Asia and typhoons that tend to stay away from the East Asia landmasses. Further analysis of the EOF time series of the WNP TTDF indicates that an important climatic factor associated with the WNP typhoon activity is the snow cover over the Tibetan Plateau (TP), which is also correlated with the East Asia summer monsoon (EASM). Thus, a mechanism linking the TP snow cover and the WNP typhoon activity is the response of the EASM in the WNP region to the TP snow cover, and the subsequent effect of EASM on the development and steering of the WNP typhoons.     

西太平洋俯冲带的演变: 来自东北亚陆缘增生杂岩的制约

本文系统总结了东北亚陆缘晚古生代和中生代增生杂岩的构成与形成时代,并结合同时代火成岩组合及其时空变异以及沉积建造组合,重塑了西太平洋板块俯冲带的演变历史。结果表明: ① 位于佳木斯地块东缘的跃进山杂岩代表了二叠纪俯冲带,它是古亚洲洋构造体制的产物;② 侏罗纪增生杂岩代表了侏罗纪俯冲带,与陆缘同期钙碱性火成岩组合以及含煤建造一起,共同揭示了古太平洋板块西向俯冲的开始;③ 侏罗纪增生杂岩中—晚侏罗世和早白垩世早期陆源碎屑岩物源的变化,与古地磁和生物学证据一起,共同揭示了古太平洋板块小角度斜向俯冲和东北亚陆缘走滑的构造属性,导致了低纬度侏罗纪增生杂岩向高纬度的推移;④ 白垩纪—古近纪增生杂岩与陆缘白垩纪—古近纪岩浆作用一起代表了该期俯冲带的存在,自早白垩世到晚白垩世再到古近纪岩浆作用范围向海沟方向的收缩,揭示了古太平洋板块西向俯冲以及俯冲板片后撤（rollback）过程的发生,同时标志着东亚大地幔楔的形成;⑤古近纪晚期—新近纪早期日本海的打开,标志着现今太平洋板块俯冲带以及东北亚大地幔楔的形成。     

西太平洋俯冲带的演变:来自东北亚陆缘增生杂岩的制约

本文系统总结了东北亚陆缘晚古生代和中生代增生杂岩的构成与形成时代,并结合同时代火成岩组合及其时空变异以及沉积建造组合,重塑了西太平洋板块俯冲带的演变历史.结果表明:①位于佳木斯地块东缘的跃进山杂岩代表了二叠纪俯冲带,它是古亚洲洋构造体制的产物;②侏罗纪增生杂岩代表了侏罗纪俯冲带,与陆缘同期钙碱性火成岩组合以及含煤建造一...     

中国浅层油气藏的特征及其资源潜力分析

中国多年来对浅层地区未进行有效的勘探开发和给予应有的重视。对渤海湾盆地等主要大中型盆地浅层油气藏的类型、分布特征和地质特征等的分析表明,中国浅层油气在地质上总体具有埋藏浅、成因复杂、受构造-岩性等复合性影响显著、储量规模与丰度大小不一、油藏类型多且分布广、资源量分布不均等特征,在勘探和开发上具有易勘探、成本低和易出砂出水、稳产难度大等优点和不足。指出中国浅层油气的潜力区域在东部,对浅层油气资源潜力进行了分析,认为浅层油气资源潜力很大,要重视浅层油气资源的勘探开发,重视新理论、新技术、新方法等在浅层隐蔽油气藏勘探开发过程中的应用。     

中国浅层油气藏的特征及其资源潜力分析

中国多年来对浅层地区未进行有效的勘探开发和给予应有的重视。对渤海湾盆地等主要大中型盆地浅层油气藏的类型、分布特征和地质特征等的分析表明,中国浅层油气在地质上总体具有埋藏浅、成因复杂、受构造-岩性等复合性影响显著、储量规模与丰度大小不一、油藏类型多且分布广、资源量分布不均等特征,在勘探和开发上具有易勘探、成本低和易出砂出水、稳产难度大等优点和不足。指出中国浅层油气的潜力区域在东部,对浅层油气资源潜力进行了分析,认为浅层油气资源潜力很大,要重视浅层油气资源的勘探开发,重视新理论、新技术、新方法等在浅层隐蔽油气藏勘探开发过程中的应用。     

Uplift and denudation history at low-elevation passive margins: Insights from morphostratigraphic analysis in the SE Armorican Massif along the French Atlantic margin

Like other low-elevation passive margins, the French Atlantic margin is characterized by a gradual topographic transition from the coast to low-altitude interior plains or plateaus. Here we propose a morphostratigraphic analysis to constrain long-term landscape evolution and denudation rates, through the characterization of palaeotopographies and related palaeoweatherings in an area restricted to the southeast Armorican Massif. Two regional-scale palaeosurfaces are recognized: (i) the Infraliassic palaeosurface, the truncated weathering profiles of which are sealed by Liassic marine deposits; (ii) the Eocene palaeosurface, underlain by thick kaolinite- and iron-rich palaeosaprolites and by siliceous duricrusts (silcretes). Quantitative constraints on large-scale tectonic uplift and long-term denudation are obtained from these morphostratigraphic markers. Mean uplift and denudation rates calculated on post-Eocene times range between 0.5 and 2 m.Ma^-1. These low values imply high landscape stability of the inland margin over most of the Cenozoic.     

Triassic-Liassic basins and climate of the Atlantic passive margins

As the Laurasian Plate tracked north over the New England hotspots in the LateTriassic, the heated and stretched crust failed along re-activated basement structures including micro-plate sutures, and continental extensions of transforms. This created the rifted passive margins of the Atlantic and established the tectonic and climatic setting of wrench-generated coastal ranges and detrital basins bordering vast salt flats that were overlain with waters from the Tethys Sea.In tracking north from an equatorial position in the Late Triassic to a subtropical latitude in the Middle Jurassic, the plate transgressed first humid, then savanna and finally arid climatic zones, which were then bordered by a transgressing epeiric Tethyan Sea. Within these climatic zones, monsoonal circulation profoundly affected patterns of sedimentation as tropical air masses cooled and warmed adiabatically as they crossed the coastal ranges and broad salt flats.Where the basement had been pulled apart as in the Newark-Gettysburg Basin or the Argana Basin of Morocco, plutons intruded the axis of the basin in the form of dikes, lava flows and subaqueous fissure flows. Differential horizontal shear along strike-slip faults created assymetric basins with an upthrown leading plate and a subsiding trailing plate. Strata within the basins record a history of recurrent, but alternating, transtentional and transpressional episodes in an overall wrench-tectonic regime. While the borderfault facies is marked by complex unconformities, young basin sediment, volcanics, en-echelon folds, fanglomerates, turbidites and deep-water lacustrine deposits with organic-rich black shale, sediments on the trailing plate are marked by an older suite of gently inclined fluvialdeltaic sands that rest with profound unconformity on the Hercynian — Variscan basement.Where shallow marine waters of the Tethys Ocean transgressed sagged pull-apart basins (as in the Khemisset and Berrichid Basins of Morocco) or where the basement was faulted by straignt, non-branching transforms (as in Grand Banks), vast salt flats occurred forming thick, deposits of halite and potash salt. The extent of Tethyan transgression and concomitant subsidence of these basins is marked by salt diapirs in the Baltimore Canyon Trough and in the Aaiun Basin of Africa.

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Zusammenfassung Während sich die Laurasische Platte in der späten Trias nordwärts bewegte über die Hotspots Neuenglands hinweg, brach die erwärmte und gedehnte Kruste entlang reaktivierter Strukturen des Basements, sowie entlang von Mikroplatten-Rändern und entlang der Fortsetzungen von Querstörungen auf den Kontinenten. Dieser Vorgang schuf die abgesenkten passiven Ränder des Atlantik und etablierte die tektonische und klimatische Situation der Küstenketten und Sedimentationsbecken, die weite mit Tethys-Meerwasser bedeckte Salzpfannen säumten.Während der Drift der Platte von einer äquatorialen Lage zur späten Triaszeit hin in eine subtropische Breite zur mittleren Jurazeit durchlief sie zunächst humide, dann Savannen- und schließlich aride Klimazonen. Diese wurden gerahmt von dem transgredierenden epirischen Tethys-Meer. Innerhalb dieser Klimazonen wurde die Sedimentation nachhaltig durch Monsum-Zirkulation beeinflußt dadurch, daß tropische Luftmassen sich abkühlten und adiabatisch erwärmten beim Überqueren der Küstenketten und der breiten Salzebenen.Dort, wo das Basement aufriß, wie etwa im Newark-Gettysburg Becken oder im Argana Becken von Morocco, drangen Plutone in die Achse des Beckens ein in Form von Gängen, Lavaergüssen und subaquatischen Spaltenergüssen. Differentielle horizontale Schubspannungen entlang Blattverschiebungen sorgten für asymmetrische Becken mit aufgeschobener Leitplatte und abgesenkter Schlepp-Platte. Die Ablagerungen innerhalb der Becken bilden eine Geschichte periodischer aber alternierender durch Zug- und Druckspannungen beherrschte Episoden ab.Die Fazies des Randstörungssystems ist durch komplexe Diskordanzen markiert, durch junge Beckensedimente, vulkanische Gesteine, girlandenartige Faltenzüge, Fanglomerate, Turbidite und Tiefwasser-Seesedimente mit organogen-reichen Schwarzschiefern. Dagegen sind die Sedimente der Schlepp-Platten gekennzeichnet durch eine ältere Folge von schwach geneigten fluviatil-deltaischen Sanden, die mit markanter Diskordanz auf dem herzynisch-variskischen Basement ruhen.Dort, wo der flache Tethys-Ozean über die sich absenkenden Dehnungs-Becken (wie etwa die Becken von Khemisset und Berrichid von Morocco) transgredierte oder wo das Basement durch geradlinige, nicht verzweigte Querstörungen zerschnitten wurde (wie im Gebiet der Great Banks), breiteten sich weite Salzebenen aus, die dicke Halit- und Kalisalzlager bildeten. Die Ausdehnung der Tethys-Transgression und die einhergehende Absenkung dieser Becken wird durch Salz-Diapire im Baltimore Canyon Graben und im Becken von Aaiun in Afrika markiert.

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Résumé Tandis que la plaque laurasiatique se déplaçait à la fin du Trias vers le nord sur les points chauds de la Nouvelle Angleterre, il s'est produit dans la croûte échauffée et sous tension, des ruptures le long de structures réactivées du socle ainsi que le long de bordures de microplaques et des prolongements de dérangements transversaux sur les continents. Ce processus conduisit à l'affaissement des bords de l'Atlantique, et à fixer la situation tectonique et climatique des chaînes cotières et des bassins de sédimentation qui bordaient de vastes dépressions salées couvertes par les eaux de la Téthys.Pedant sa dérive, à partir d'une position équatoriale à la fin du Trias jusqu'à une latitude subtropicale au Jurassique moyen, la plaque traversa des zones climatiques d'abord humides, puis à savannes et finalement arides, qui se trouvaient en bordure des transgressions épiriques del a Thétys. Dans ces zones climatiques, la sédimentation fut fortement influencée par la mousson sous l'effet des masses d'air tropical qui se refroidissaint et se réchauffaient adiabatiquement à la traversée des chaînes côtières et des plaines salifères ouvertes.Là où le socle apparaissait, comme dans le bassin de Newark-Gettysburg ou dans le bassin d'Argan au Maroc, des plutons pénétraient dans l'axe des bassins sous la forme de dikes, de coulées de lav et de coulées fissurales subaquatiques. Des poussées différentielles horizontales suivant des failles conduisirent à des bassins asymétriques, la plaque motrice en voie de soulèvement entraînant la plaque en voie d'affaissement. Les dépôts dans les bassins représentent une histoire faite d'épisodes périodiques et alternants dominés par des tensions et compressions.Le facie dans le système en bordure des dérangements, est marqué par des discordances complexes, des sédiments de bassin jeunes, des roches volcaniques, des faisceaux de plis en guirlande, des fanglomérats, des turbidites, et des sédiments de mer profonde avec des schistes noirs riches en matières organiques. Par contre les sédiments des plaques entraînées sont caractérisés par une série plus ancienne de sables fluvio-deltaïques faiblement inclinés qui reposent avec une discordance bien marquée sur le socle hercynovarisque.Là où la Thétys, de faible profondeur, transgressait sur les bassins d'extension en voie d'affaissement (comme les bassins de Khemisset et de Berrichid au Maroc), ou là ou le socle était recoupé par des fractures transversales rectilignes sans bifurcation (comme dans les Great Banks), s'étendaient de vastes aires salées avec formation d'épaisses couches de halite et de sels potassiques. L'extension de la transgression thétysienne et la continuelle dépression de ces bassins est marquée par des diapirs salins dans le Graben de Baltymore et dans le bassin d'Aaiun en Afrique.

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Advances in our understanding of the gem corundum deposits of the West Pacific continental margins intraplate basaltic fields

Recent discoveries over the last decade of new gemfields, exploitation of new and existing deposits, and application of relatively new techniques have greatly increased our knowledge of the basalt-derived gem sapphire–ruby–zircon deposits. In this paper we focus on the Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic intraplate basaltic fields of the West Pacific continental margins. We review advances made in understanding the genesis of these deposits, based on the application of newer techniques. We also critically review existing data on the gem corundum deposits, in order to further refine a model for their origin.In some of the intraplate basaltic fields, corundum-bearing xenoliths have been found showing a range of PT formation conditions from 790 °C at 0.85 GPa to as much as 1100 to 1200 °C at 1.0 to 2.5 GPa. Although most magmatic sapphires contain syngenetic inclusions of columbite-group phases, zircon, spinel and rutile, some contain additional nepheline and K-feldspar, suggesting crystallization from more undersaturated alkaline magma while the Weldborough field of NE Tasmania also contains molybdenite and beryl, suggesting at least some interaction with more fractionated ‘granitic-type’ magmas. There is a large range in PT conditions calculated for the metamorphic rubies (from 780 to 940 °C, through 800 to 1150 °C up to 1000 to 1300 °C). Fluid/melt inclusion studies on magmatic corundums generally suggest that they formed in a CO₂-rich environment from a ‘syenitic’ melt under a range of T conditions from 720 to 880 °C up to 1000 to 1200 °C. Oxygen isotope studies reveal that typical magmatic corundums have values of + 4.4 to 6.9‰, whereas metamorphic corundums from the same basaltic host have lower values of + 1.3 to 4.2‰.Geochronological studies have shown that some fields produced a simple eruptive and zircon/corundum crystallization event while others had multiple eruptive events but only one or two zircon crystallization events. For a few fields, some corundums/zircons crystallized in storage regions and then remained relatively inert for periods of 200 to 400 Ma without significant change before transport to the surface in the Cenozoic. Tectonic studies of the Australian region suggest that many of the corundums crystallized from magmas related to episodic basaltic volcanism in a tectonic regime of extension, associated with the opening of the Tasman and Coral Seas. For the Asian region, the magmatic–polygenetic corundums within the basaltic fields largely crystallized in a tectonic regime of distributed E–W extension, whereas the metamorphic-metasomatic corundums crystallised in a transpressional regime associated with the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate (e.g., [Garnier, V., Giuliani, G., Maluski, H., Ohnenstetter, D., Deloule, E., 2003. Ar–Ar and U–Pb ages of marble-hosted ruby deposits from Central and South-east Asia. Geophysical Research Abstracts 5, 03751; Garnier, V., Giuliani, G., Ohnenstetter, D., and Schwarz, D., 2004. Les gisements de corindon: classification et genese. Les placers a corindon gemme. Le Regne Mineral 55, 7-47; Garnier, V., Ohnenstetter, D., Giuliani, G., Maluski, H., Deloule, E., Phan Trong, T., Pham Van, L., Hoang Quang, V., 2005a. Age and significance of ruby-bearing marble from the Red River Shear Zone, Northern Vietnam. Canadian Mineralogist 43, 1315–1329]).     

塔里木盆地西南边缘压扭构造体系及其石油地质意义

塔里木盆地西南边缘发育甫沙-齐姆根和柯克亚-和田南2个压扭构造体系,前者主要是帕米尔弧形构造东北侧的侧向滑移与西昆仑造山带向塔里木盆地的不均匀冲断活动的联合作用结果,后者则主要与西昆仑造山带向塔里木盆地的不均匀冲断作用有关。这两个压扭构造体系主体形成于新近纪以来的喜马拉雅运动,其构造样式在平面上主要为走滑-逆冲断裂和雁列式分布的断裂与背斜,在剖面上则呈现为双重构造与反冲构造的叠加。压扭构造带所遭受的压扭作用从改善储层的储集性能、形成新的油气圈闭、促进油气运移与成藏等方面对塔里木盆地西南边缘的油气成藏发挥了积极作用,压扭构造带是油气勘探的有利构造部位。     

Rheologic properties of the lithosphere and applications to passive continental margins

Thermal and petrologic models of the crust and upper mantle are used for calculating effective viscosities on the basis of constant creep rates. Viscosity—depth models together with pressure—depth models are calculated for continental and oceanic blocks facing each other at continental margins. It is found from these “static models” that the overburden pressure in the lower crust and uppermost mantle causes a stress which is directed from the ocean to the continent. The generally low viscosity of 10²⁰–10²³ poise in this region should permit a creep process which could finally lead to a “silent” subduction. In the upper crust static stresses act in the opposite direction, i.e. from the continent to the ocean, favouring tension which could produce normal faulting in the continent. Differences between observations and the results obtained from the static models are attributed to dynamical forces.     

Seaward dipping reflectors along the SW continental margin of India: Evidence for volcanic passive margin

Multi-channel seismic reflection profiles across the southwest continental margin of India (SWCMI) show presence of westerly dipping seismic reflectors beneath sedimentary strata along the western flank of the Laccadive Ridge — northernmost part of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge system. Velocity structure, seismic character, 2D gravity model and geographic locations of the dipping reflectors suggest that these reflectors are volcanic in origin, which are interpreted as Seaward Dipping Reflectors (SDRs).     

Terrane accretion and dispersal in the northern Gondwana margin. An Early Paleozoic analogue of a long-lived active margin

If reconstruction of major events in ancient orogenic belts is achieved in sufficient detail, the tectonic evolution of these belts can offer valuable information to widen our perspective of processes currently at work in modern orogens. Here, we illustrate this possibility taking the western European Cadomian–Avalonian belt as an example. This research is based mainly on the study and interpretation of U–Pb ages of more than 300 detrital zircons from Neoproterozoic and Early Paleozoic sedimentary rocks from Iberia and Brittany. Analyses have been performed using the laser ablation–ICP–MS technique. The U–Pb data record contrasting detrital zircon age spectra for various terranes of western Europe. The differences provide information on the processes involved in the genesis of the western European Precambrian terranes along the northern margin of Neoproterozoic Gondwana during arc construction and subduction, and their dispersal and re-amalgamation along the margin to form the Avalonia and Armorica microcontinents. The U–Pb ages reported here also support the alleged change from subduction to transform activity that led to the final break-up of the margin, the birth of the Rheic Ocean and the drift of Avalonia. We contend that the active northern margin of Gondwana evolved through several stages that match the different types of active margins recognised in modern settings.     

Structure and evolution of the passive margin of the eastern tethys

An extensive passive margin was formed in the Triassic along the periphery of Arabia, including the Tauric carbonate platform. This event is related to the opening of the Mesozoic Tethys when a number of microcontinents split off from Gondwana. Triassic extension and continental rifting resulted in the formation of a structural pattern which is uniform from the Dinarides to Oman. It includes the following elements:

1. (1) shelf,

2. (2) continental slope,

3. (3) deep basin probably with a floor of attenuated sialic crust,

4. (4) inner carbonate platform. In the Jurassic-Cretaceous stable conditions prevailed, influenced only by eustatic oscillations of the sea level. Turbidites accumulated on the continental rise while cherts and radiolarites were deposited in the deep basins (Hawasina, Pichakun, Antalya, Pindus) below the CCD level. Sedimentation on the shelf was controlled by north-northeast transverse tectonic elements which also continued across the passive margin, dividing it into a number of segments. Collision with an island arc led to obduction of the oceanic crust, deformation of the passive margin and overthrusting of its sedimentary cover onto the Arabian shelf. Obduction and deformation lasted for about 10 m.y. and created a new tectonic pattern with concentric structural zones surrounding the Arabian promontory.

These zones include:

1. (1) the flysch basin—a remnant of the closing Tethys;

2. (2) an uplift—a site of periodical emergence and erosion, corresponding to the frontal part of the ophiolitic nappes;

3. (3) the Border furrow—a depocenter of low-energy calcareous marls,

4. (4) the Arabian shield constantly emerged during the Tertiary. Tectonic deformation of these zones caused by the collision of Arabia with Eurasia began prior to the Early Miocene and it is still going on.

Data on Afghanistan demonstrate that its central part (the Gelmend-Argandab and Kabul blocks) belonged during the Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic to the continental shelf of India.