Ground settlements above tunnels in fractured crystalline rock: numerical analysis of coupled hydromechanical mechanisms

Vertical settlements with magnitudes reaching 12 cm were measured in fractured crystalline rock several hundred metres above the Gotthard highway tunnel in central Switzerland. Such magnitudes of surface subsidence were unexpected, especially in granitic gneisses and appear to be related to large-scale consolidation of fractures resulting from fluid drainage and pore pressure changes following tunnel construction. This paper focuses on the mechanisms involved in the development of such surface displacements and presents the preliminary results of 2-D discontinuum (i.e. distinct-element) and 2-D continuum modelling (i.e. finite-element). Results show that settlements are most sensitive to horizontal joints, as would be expected, but that vertical fractures also contribute to the settlement profile through a 'Poisson ratio' effect. However, these models also suggest that fracture deformation alone cannot explain the total subsidence measured. As such, 2-D poro-elastic finite-element models are presented to demonstrate the contributing effect of consolidation of the intact rock matrix. Electronic Publication     

Observations and predictions of hydromechanical coupling effects in the Boom clay,Mol Underground Research Laboratory,Belgium

The Boom clay is considered as a candidate host rock for the Belgian disposal of radioactive waste. Thanks to the recent sinking of a new shaft to extend the Underground Research Laboratory (URL) at the Mol site, new in-situ data have been obtained. They consist in the observation of significant fracturing, evidenced during the excavation of the shaft annexes, and in correlated hydraulic perturbations in the far field (maximum of 0.2 MPa at 60-m radius). These observations cannot be explained from simple poroplastic models that predict a maximum perturbation extent of 25 m under full deconfinement. Thus, models with increasing complexity are built to explain this discrepancy. It is proposed that the low-support pressure imposed by the primary lining, combined with the long time over which this support condition held, has favoured the decompression of the clay massif through time-dependent effects, mainly skeleton viscosity. This resulted in near-field fracturing, leading to an apparent increase of the excavated radius and to a hydraulic perturbation in the far field. This interpretation still needs to be validated/invalidated with future research. The effect on the overall performance of the repository is expected to remain small due to the self-healing nature of the fractures. Electronic Publication     

Electrical resistivity imaging of conductive plume dilution in fractured rock

Electrical resistance tomography (ERT) was used to monitor a conductive plume dilution experiment that was conducted in fractured basalt in order to assess its applications in this type of fractured-rock environment. Tap water was injected into an injection well for 34 days to dilute a pre-existing potassium chloride (KCl) plume at a site in Idaho, USA. No further fluids were introduced artificially during a 62-day monitoring period. Both surface ERT and cross-borehole ERT were used to monitor dilution and displacement of the plume. A square grid of land-surface electrodes was used with the surface ERT. Three-dimensional images of surface ERT delineated areas of increased and decreased resistivities. Increasing resistivities are attributed to dilution/displacement of the KCl solution by tap-water invasion or the influx of seasonal recharge. Decreasing resistivities resulted from redistribution of residual KCl solution. Cross-borehole ERT was conducted between the injection well and each of seven surrounding monitoring wells. Polar plots of the injection-well resistivity data in the direction of each monitoring well delineate specific locations where tap water seeped from the injection well via preferential flow paths determined by time-dependent resistivity increases. Monitoring-well data indicate locations of clustered and isolated regions of resistivity changes.     

Regional evaluation of hydraulic properties in variably fractured rock using a hydrostructural domain approach

A hydrostructural domain approach was tested and validated in fractured bedrock aquifers of the Gulf Islands, British Columbia (BC), Canada. Relative potential hydraulic properties for three hydrostructural domains in folded and faulted sedimentary rocks were derived using stochastically generated fracture data and hybrid discrete fracture network-equivalent porous media (DFN-EPM) modelling. Model-derived relative potential transmissivity values show good spatial agreement with transmissivity values obtained from pumping tests at selected sites. A spatial pattern of increasing transmissivity towards the southeast along the island chain is consistent between both datasets. Cluster analysis on relative potential permeability values obtained from a larger dataset for the region identified four clusters with geometric means of 9?×?10^?13, 4?×?10^?13, 2?×?10^–13, and 3?×?10^–14 m². The general trend is an increase in relative potential permeability toward the southeast, emulating the trends identified in the site-specific analyses. Relative potential permeability values increase with proximity to the hinge line of a regional northwest-trending asymmetric fault propagation fold structure, and with proximity to superimposed high-angle north- and northeast-trending brittle faults. The results are consistent with documented patterns of structurally controlled fluid flow and show promise for use in regional characterization of fractured bedrock aquifers.     

A technique for estimating permeability of a randomly fractured rock mass

Extensive field and laboratory testing programs were performed to develop a relationship between the permeability of a fractured limestone and the core recovery values. The studied limestone does not encompass any jointing system but is consistently and randomly fractured. Nineteen in situ falling head permeability tests were carried out to measure permeability of the fractured rock mass at a representative study area. Analysis of test results has led to the formulation of an empirical equation that estimates the permeability of the rock mass in terms of its solid core recovery value and the permeability of the fractures filling material. Unlike the existing equations for estimating the permeability of rock masses, the proposed equation is simple and utilizes parameters that can be easily determined in regular geotechnical field and laboratory investigations. A technique is also presented to estimate the permeability of a rock layer, the quality of which significantly changes with depth, using the proposed equation that utilizes a single value of core recovery. Analysis of well-documented pumping test results supported the validity of the proposed equation and technique.     

各向异性软岩的变形与渗流耦合特性试验研究

根据泥质粉砂岩和泥岩在垂直和平行于层理面的条件下进行的三轴压缩和渗流试验,得到了不同围压及岩石成层条件下泥质粉砂岩和泥岩的弹性模量,建立了基于层理面夹角和围压的软岩弹性模量控制方程。渗透张量与应力的耦合关系是各向异性渗流耦合分析的关键问题,通过引入应力主轴与渗透主轴非一致时渗透张量与应力的响应关系,建立了各向异性渗透张量与应力耦合的控制方程,并对比了试验数据与计算结果,为各向异性软岩渗流应力耦合分析模型的建立奠定了理论基础。     

Multiple-methods investigation of recharge at a humid-region fractured rock site,Pennsylvania, USA

Lysimeter-percolate and well-hydrograph analyses were combined to evaluate recharge for the Masser Recharge Site (central Pennsylvania, USA). In humid regions, aquifer recharge through an unconfined low-porosity fractured-rock aquifer can cause large magnitude water-table fluctuations over short time scales. The unsaturated hydraulic characteristics of the subsurface porous media control the magnitude and timing of these fluctuations. Data from multiple sets of lysimeters at the site show a highly seasonal pattern of percolate and exhibit variability due to both installation factors and hydraulic property heterogeneity. Individual event analysis of well hydrograph data reveals the primary influences on water-table response, namely rainfall depth, rainfall intensity, and initial water-table depth. Spatial and seasonal variability in well response is also evident. A new approach for calculating recharge from continuous water-table elevation records using a master recession curve (MRC) is demonstrated. The recharge estimated by the MRC approach when assuming a constant specific yield is seasonal to a lesser degree than the recharge estimate resulting from the lysimeter analysis. Partial reconciliation of the two recharge estimates is achieved by considering a conceptual model of flow processes in the highly-heterogeneous underlying fractured porous medium.     

In situ estimation of the effective chemical diffusion coefficient of a rock matrix in a fractured aquifer

An in situ method of estimating the effective diffusion coefficient for a chemical constituent that diffuses into the primary porosity of a rock is developed by abruptly changing the concentration of the dissolved constituent in a borehole in contact with the rock matrix and monitoring the time-varying concentration. The experiment was conducted in a borehole completed in mudstone on the campus of the University of the Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Numerous tracer tests were conducted at this site, which left a residual concentration of sodium chloride in boreholes that diffused into the rock matrix over a period of years. Fresh water was introduced into a borehole in contact with the mudstone, and the time-varying increase of chloride was observed by monitoring the electrical conductivity (EC) at various depths in the borehole. Estimates of the effective diffusion coefficient were obtained by interpreting measurements of EC over 34 d. The effective diffusion coefficient at a depth of 36 m was approximately 7.8×10^?6 m²/d, but was sensitive to the assumed matrix porosity. The formation factor and mass flux for the mudstone were also estimated from the experiment.     

Determining the equivalent permeability tensor for fractured rock masses using a stochastic REV approach: Method and application to the field data from Sellafield,UK

A numerical procedure to determine the equivalent permeability tensor of a fractured rock is presented, using a stochastic REV (Representative Elementary Volume) concept that uses multiple realizations of stochastic DFN (Discrete Fracture Network) models. Ten square DFN models are generated using the Monte Carlo simulations of the fracture system based on the data obtained from a site characterization program at Sellafield, Cumbria, UK. Smaller models with varying sizes of from 0.25 m×0.25 m to 10 m×10 m are extracted from the generated DFN models and are used as two-dimensional geometrical models for calculation of equivalent permeability tensor. The DFN models are also rotated in 30º intervals to evaluate the tensor characteristics of calculated directional permeability. Results show that the variance of the calculated permeability values decreases significantly as the side lengths of the DFN models increase, which justifies the existence of a REV. The REV side length found in this analysis is about 5 m and 8 m with 20% and 10% acceptable variations, respectively. The calculated directional permeability values at the REV size have tensor characteristic that is confirmed by a close approximation of an ellipse in a polar plot of the reciprocal of square roots of the directional permeability.

随机裂隙岩体渗流-应力耦合分析的块体单元法

视岩石裂隙为一种“充填介质”,进而将有填充物和无填充物的裂隙统一处理,推导了裂隙面的刚度系数、导水系数和法向应力之间的关系式。在此基础上,根据块体单元法的应力、渗流分析的基本原理,即认为岩块为刚体、变形集中发生于裂隙面,假定岩块不透水、渗流仅通过裂隙面进行,并考虑了法向应力和裂隙面刚度、导水系数的关系式,运用两场交叉迭代法,提出了三维随机裂隙岩体渗流与应力耦合分析的块体单元模型。编写了相应的Fortran程序,该程序将块体元的应力、渗流两个分析模块整合在一起,计算效率较高。该模型的最大优势是能考虑大规模复杂的节理、裂隙,且前、后处理简单。通过沙沱重力坝的分析,验证了方法的准确性和有效性     

考虑卸荷作用的裂隙岩体渗流应力耦合研究

大量试验证明,裂隙岩体在加载和卸荷的条件下其渗流与应力特性是不完全相同的。近年来,加载条件下的裂隙岩体渗流应力耦合研究得到了长足的发展,但卸荷作用下的水岩耦合分析还处于初始阶段。基于现有裂隙变形曲线的研究结果,建立了渗透系数与卸荷应力、应变间的本构关系,在此基础上,根据算例分析了各种工况下的渗流和应力特征,其计算结果表明,考虑卸荷后应力场的改变增加了临近坡面的岩体渗透系数,降低了地下水浸润线,增加了边坡的稳定性;考虑渗流后,边坡的位移场和应力场有较大改变,但考虑耦合后位移和应力分布和大小与不耦合时的相差不大;边坡开挖后应力场改变对渗流的影响远大于渗流对位移、应力等的影响。     

裂隙岩体流-热耦合传热的三维数值模拟分析

通过对潘西煤矿水文地质条件的分析,基于裂隙岩体的流-热耦合数学模型,描述了裂隙岩体渗流场分布和水流及岩体的温度场分布,并结合边界条件及计算参数对裂隙岩体的流-热耦合传热进行了数值模拟和分析。数值模拟结果表明,岩体内裂隙水流所引发的热量迁移,对裂隙岩体的温度场分布有重要影响。断裂带及地下水流的存在改变了岩体的原有温度场分布。在渗流初期,温度梯度矢量沿渗流方向向两侧岩体方向流动,由于两侧岩体的渗透性系数低于断裂带处的渗透性系数,右侧等温线及温度梯度矢量方向逐渐向渗流方向移动,改变了两侧岩体的温度场分布。通过对断裂带内裂隙水流渗透性系数的折减,分析渗透性系数发生变化时对岩体温度场分布的影响,渗透性系数越大,伴随的热量迁移增大,对岩体的温度场分布的影响也越大。     

Small scale study of groundwater flow in a fractured carbonate-rock aquifer at the St-Eustache quarry, Québec, Canada

A small-scale hydrogeological study was conducted in a fractured carbonate-rock aquifer located in a quarry to relate groundwater flow to the fracture network. The field study in the St-Eustache quarry, which integrates structural surveys, well logging and hydraulic tests, showed that the most important features that affect groundwater flow in the sedimentary aquifer are high hydraulic conductivity horizontal bedding planes. Vertical fractures are abundant in the quarry and throughout the region, but they have a minor effect on groundwater flow. To have a significant impact on the flow regime and lead to vertical groundwater flow, the permeability of all vertical joints need to be enhanced compared to what was generally observed at the site. Such an increase in permeability could potentially occur where dissolution and fracturing is more intense or at stress release locations such as near the surface in the quarry.     

Numerical modeling of stress effects on solute transport in fractured rocks

The effects of stress/deformation on fluid flow and contaminant transport in fractured rocks is one of the major concerns for performance and safety assessments of many subsurface engineering problems, especially radioactive waste disposal and oil/gas reservoir fields. However, very little progress has been made to study this issue due to difficulties in both experiments and numerical modeling. The objective of this study is to systematically investigate the influence of stress on solute transport in fractured rocks for the first time, considering different stress and hydraulic pressure conditions. A hybrid approach combining discrete element method (DEM) for stress-flow simulations and a particle tracking algorithm is developed. The impact of matrix diffusion (diffusion of molecular size solutes in and out of the rock matrix, and sorption onto the surface of micropores in rock matrix) is also included. The numerical results show that stress not only significantly changes the solute residence time through the fracture networks, but also changes the solute travel paths. Matrix diffusion plays a dominant role in solute transport when the hydraulic gradient is small, which is often encountered in practice.     

随机与确定耦合的裂隙岩体结构面三维网络模拟

离散裂隙随机网络模型中结构面的分布特征仅代表其统计规律,并非地质成因、结构模式、构造形迹的客观反映,以致后续力学计算及渗流模拟结果可信度偏低。针对国家高放废物处置库甘肃北山预选区出露良好的花岗岩体,基于实测结构面统计规律、内在成生关系及水力联系,在前期纯随机模型关键部位修正特征参数,并融入人工辨识的确定结构模式而构建“随机-确定”耦合模型。图形和渗流模拟两种定量检验结果表明：耦合模型结构面数量更接近客观实际,模型准确度提升约48.8%;耦合模型渗流路径与流量较之前更显客观真实,模拟结果与试验数据的接近程度比随机模型大约1/3。另外,不同孔位渗流结果显示：相比于随机结构面,确定性结构面对区域渗流控制作用更加明显,在渗流模拟中扮演更为重要角色。此耦合模型有益于拓宽结构面网络模拟的发展方向。     

裂隙岩体渗流-应力耦合等效渗流阻模型

针对含区域主干裂隙岩体在应力作用下的渗透特性进行了研究。运用单裂隙平行板渗流理论、弹性力学方法,结合模拟电路知识,提出等效渗流阻的概念。在分析裂隙岩体区域中主干裂隙系统几何构造的基础上,建立了基于等效渗流阻的- 渗流-应力耦合模型,得到了裂隙岩体等效渗流阻、渗透率与应力之间的关系,从而为研究含区域主干裂隙岩体的应力-渗流耦合规律提供了方便。结合一个基于等效渗流阻模型的算例,考察了含“人”字形组合裂隙试样的渗透特性。经进一步细化后,该模型可用于分析地应力作用下的含区域主干裂隙岩体渗流演化规律。     

Influence of topsoil of pyroclastic origin on microbial contamination of groundwater in fractured carbonate aquifers

The aim of the research was to analyse the influence of a topsoil of pyroclastic origin on microbial contamination of groundwater in a carbonate aquifer and verify the reliability of thermotolerant coliforms and fecal enterococci as bacterial indicators. The research was carried out through hydrogeological and microbiological monitoring at an experimental field site in Italy during two hydrologic years and through column tests in a laboratory. The taxonomic classification of fecal indicators detected in spring water samples was performed using API20 galleries. Fecal enterococci were also identified by means of 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The topsoil of pyroclastic origin significantly retains both thermotolerant coliforms and fecal enterococci. Results of column tests carried out in soil blocks collected randomly within the test site suggest that Escherichia coli was more retained than Enterococcus faecalis, even though this difference is statistically significant in only two out of six soil samples. Thus, a non-uniform difference in retention is expected at field scale. This suggestion is in agreement with the results of the microbiological monitoring. In fact, fecal enterococci were a more reliable indicator than thermotolerant coliforms for detecting contamination at both seasonal springs of the aquifer system, while no significant differences were observed at the perennial spring.     

裂隙岩体高压压水试验水-岩耦合过程数值模拟

为了解高压水渗流作用对裂隙岩体应力和变形的影响,结合黑麋峰抽水蓄能电站岩体高压压水试验的渗压及变形测试成果,采用多孔连续介质全耦合理论,研究了试验区岩体测点在压水孔加压和卸压过程中的孔隙压力和位移变化过程。通过对测点位移和渗压随时间变化过程的计算值和实测值对比研究,验证了所采用的水-岩耦合数值模型的合理性。研究表明：在压水孔内的水压力和岩体孔隙压力的共同作用下,岩体内的应力大幅度增加;压水过程中,岩体因渗流作用产生了较大的位移,停止压水后的一段时间内,由于岩体中还存在一定的孔隙水压力和水压力梯度,从而导致岩体内仍存在部分变形值,且该部分变形值并非是压水孔卸载后岩体内的塑性残余变形;高压水渗流作用下的岩体耦合效应对工程应力和围岩变形有重大影响,考虑水-岩耦合效应的岩体稳定性评价结果对工程设计更具指导意义     

A comparative simulation study of coupled THM processes and their effect on fractured rock permeability around nuclear waste repositories

This paper presents an international, multiple-code, simulation study of coupled thermal, hydrological, and mechanical (THM) processes and their effect on permeability and fluid flow in fractured rock around heated underground nuclear waste emplacement drifts. Simulations were conducted considering two types of repository settings (1) open emplacement drifts in relatively shallow unsaturated volcanic rock, and (2) backfilled emplacement drifts in deeper saturated crystalline rock. The results showed that for the two assumed repository settings, the dominant mechanism of changes in rock permeability was thermal–mechanically induced closure (reduced aperture) of vertical fractures, caused by thermal stress resulting from repository-wide heating of the rock mass. The magnitude of thermal–mechanically induced changes in permeability was more substantial in the case of an emplacement drift located in a relatively shallow, low-stress environment where the rock is more compliant, allowing more substantial fracture closure during thermal stressing. However, in both of the assumed repository settings in this study, the thermal–mechanically induced changes in permeability caused relatively small changes in the flow field, with most changes occurring in the vicinity of the emplacement drifts.