Taphonomy of guanaco bones in Tierra del Fuego

Guanaco carcasses are deposited in great quantities in Cabo San Pablo, Tierra del Fuego (Argentina), as a result of winter stress. Taphonomic studies indicate that the gnawing action of foxes on guanaco (Lama guanicoe) carcasses produces only very tenuous marks on the bones. Lack of sustained interest in the carcasses by carnivores results in slow disarticulation. The articulated and disarticulated bones are exposed to heavy trampling by guanacos, a process that produces vertical migration of small/dense bones and fracturing of the most weathered bones. An understanding of this ongoing process is important for local archaeology, since modern bones are migrating into archaeological contexts. A regional approach to taphonomy is the most appropriate instrument to solve this and other related problems.     

Coloring and preservation state of faunal remains from the neanderthal levels of Kůlna Cave,Czech republic

The preservation process of faunal remains from the Middle Paleolithic levels of Kůlna Cave was studied within a taphonomic and palaeodietary framework. A visual examination of bones and teeth showed that they display a wide variety of colors. Chemical analyses (C, N, Fe, Mn) and a combination of analytical techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometry, were conducted on 13 fossil remains. The crystallinity indexes, IR‐SF, XRD‐CI, XRD‐L200, the IR area band (Amide I), and the ESR analyses showed that the bones were not burned at a temperature higher than 200°C. This implies that the bone remains were not used as fuel by Neanderthals at Kůlna Cave. Coloring in these bones is largely due to the presence of Mn and Fe. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Lead in prehistoric,historic and contemporary Japanese: stable isotopic study by ICP mass spectrometry

Lead concentration and isotopic composition of prehistoric (middle and latest Jomon era, 2000–4500 BP, n=6), historic (Edo era, 130–400 BP, n=10), and contemporary (died in 1987–88, n=15) Japanese bones, and deciduous teeth from contemporary Japanese children born during 1985–88 (n=17) were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Lead concentration was lowest in Jomon bones and was higher in rural Edo, contemporary, and urban Edo, in that order. Elevated Pb concentration in historic Edo people, as reported previously, was reconfirmed. The average isotopic ratios (²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb) in excavated (prehistoric and historic) bones, contemporary bones, and deciduous teeth were different from each other. The contemporary bones had the least radiogenic composition (mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb: 0.879; mean ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁶Pb: 2.126) while the excavated bones the most (0.848; 2.098), and teeth intermediate (0.866; 2.111). The comparison with the literature data of isotopic compositions of environmental samples showed that the isotopic composition of the excavated bones was within the range of Japanese ores, rocks and soils, indicating the absence of foreign Pb sources in preindustrialized Japan. That of the contemporary bones was closer to the average gasoline Pb, the use of which had been banned in the late 1970s, than to the Pb in airborne particulate matter or refuse incineration ash of 1980s. The average Pb isotopic ratios in the deciduous teeth was close to the isotopic ratios of Pb in airborne particulate matter and refuse incineration ash. These data indicated that the contemporary Japanese population was exposed to foreign Pb which had different isotopic composition from domestic Pb. Exposure to Pb of foreign origin was particularly evidently recorded in people born before the leaded gasoline ban. The history of human Pb contamination in Japan is discussed based on the present results and other previously published data.     

湖北郧西黄龙洞骨化石表面改造痕迹研究

湖北黄龙洞遗址出土有距今约10万年的7枚晚期智人牙齿化石,以及大量哺乳动物化石,并发掘出石制品和骨制品等。本研究使用光学显微镜、超景深数码显微镜以及三维扫描仪等对该遗址骨化石表面具有明显改造痕迹的标本进行形态学观察,并参考国内外关于标本表面改造痕迹的认识,对痕迹性质(种类)进行鉴定。然后以鉴定工作为基础,对痕迹在骨骼表面的分布组合特征进行量化分析。痕迹研究结果支持了发掘者此前提出的关于黄龙洞骨骼堆积属于原地埋藏的研究结论,并表明:黄龙洞内古人类的狩猎与屠宰等活动,是造成洞穴内骨骼堆积的主要原因;当时古人类可能在居址附近猎获动物后,将动物集中到洞穴内进行过较细致的屠宰。居住在黄龙洞的古人类屠宰技术行为主要有:切割、刮切、砍斫和砸击等。大多数切割痕迹主要是为了剥取肉食,部分位于骨骺端的切割痕迹以及砍斫痕迹是肢解行为的结果,而砸击痕迹则与取食骨髓以及骨器制作的行为有关。与人工痕迹同时出现的动物改造痕迹还反映出食肉动物和啮齿动物对人类遗留在洞穴内的骨骼有一定程度的再利用。     

The Composition of Phosphatized Bones in Recent Sediments

Mineral and chemical compositions of bone phosphate were studied in two samples from the outer Namibian shelf sediments composed of fish skull fragments and whale ribbon. Fossilization of bones is accompanied by the accumulation of lithogenic components, iron, sulfur, rare earth and other trace elements (Ni, Cu, Co, Cd, Mo, La, Ce, Th, U, and others), whereas the organic and mineral carbon content decreases. The evolution of bone phosphate during fossilization consists in transition from primary hydroxylapatite to a gel-type material, which subsequently becomes globular and crystallizes as fluorcarbonate-apatite crystallites. Additionally, some authigenic minerals, including both relatively widespread minerals (pyrite, uraninite, and coffinite) and rare minerals (graphite and calcium and germanium oxides) are formed in the bones. A considerable proportion of uranium in bones consists of uranium minerals, which also contain rare earth elements.     

The fauna and overall interpretation of the “Cutting 10” Acheulean site at Elandsfontein (Hopefield), southwestern Cape Province,South Africa

The Cutting 10 site at Elandsfontein (Hopefield), southwestern Cape Province, South Africa, is one of only three sites in southern Africa where bones and Acheulean artifacts have been documented together in primary or near primary context and the only such site where the association is in the open air. The Cutting 10 bones belong to a minimum of 15 mammalian species, which together suggest both a mid-Pleistocene age for the site and a vegetational setting in which grasses played a much more important role than they did historically. The absence of evidence for hearths, windbreaks, and other features, the composition of the artifact assemblage, the relatively sparse scatter of bones and artifacts, the relatively high bone to artifact ratio, the species composition of the fauna, and the numbers of different kinds of skeletal elements represented all indicate that the Cutting 10 occurrence was more a butchering site than a campsite. Although people are probably responsible for most of the bones, some of them probably come from animals that were killed by large carnivores or that died naturally.     

Preservation of large titanosaur sauropods in overbank fluvial facies: A case study in the Cretaceous of Argentina

Patagonia exhibits a particularly abundant record of Cretaceous dinosaurs with worldwide relevance. Although paleontological studies are relatively numerous, few include taphonomic information about these faunas. This contribution provides the first detailed sedimentological and taphonomical analyses of a dinosaur bone quarry from northern Neuquén Basin. At Arroyo Seco (Mendoza Province, Argentina), a large parautochthonous/autochthonous accumulation of articulated and disarticulated bones that represent several sauropod individuals has been discovered. The fossil remains, assigned to Mendozasaurus neguyelap González Riga, correspond to a large (18–27-m long) sauropod titanosaur collected in the strata of the Río Neuquén Subgroup (late Turoronian–late Coniacian). A taphonomic viewpoint recognizes a two-fold division into biostratinomic and fossil-diagenetic processes. Biostratinomic processes include (1) subaerial biodegradation of sauropod carcasses on well-drained floodplains, (2) partial or total skeletal disarticulation, (3) reorientation of bones by sporadic overbank flows, and (4) subaerial weathering. Fossil-diagenetic processes include (1) plastic deformation of bones, (2) initial permineralization with hematite, (3) fracturing and brittle deformation due to lithostatic pressure; (4) secondary permineralization with calcite in vascular canals and fractures, and (5) postfossilization bone weathering. This type of bone concentration, also present in Rincón de los Sauces (northern Patagonia), suggests that overbank facies tended to accumulate large titanosaur bones. This taphonomic mode, referred to as “overbank bone assemblages”, outlines the potential of crevasse splay facies as important sources of paleontological data in Cretaceous meandering fluvial systems.     

Toward the definition of criteria for the recognition of artificial bone alterations

Cutting, fracturing, flaking, and polishing of bones and other osseous materials may in some instances be interpreted as evidence of former human activity. Such interpretations must avoid confusion with the wide variety of natural processes that alter bones. Reliable criteria are prerequisite to sound inferences based on bone, regardless of whether they have been redeposited or recovered from primary assemblages. Criteria must be defined by means of actualistic studies (neotaphonomy) and experiments that demonstrate causal relationships between patterns of alteration and the processes that produce them. The criteria can be empoyed in the interpretation of fossil bones (paleotaphonomy) on the basis of uniformitarian principles. At the present time, such relationships are relatively well understood in the case of cut marks on bones, and modest progress has been made in investigating fractured and flaked bones. Polished bones are little understood and difficult to interpret.     

锶,硼和氟联合作用的亚急性毒理实验及环境意义

本文以自由饮水给药方式进行了锶、硼和氟联合作用的亚急性实验，以探讨锶、硼对氟的拮抗作用。实验结果，给予小鼠200×l0^-6 F 六个月后，可使其骨氟含量显著升高(P<0.01)，肾碱性磷酸酶活力(ALP)显著增高(P<0.01)，4、5个月后血清碱性磷酸酶(ALP)活力亦显著增高(P<0.O1)，同时给予80×l0^-1 B3+、100×l0^-6Sr2+ 时，可以显著降低骨氟含量，抑制血清、肾碱性磷酸酶的活力，表明锶与硼对氟存在拮抗作用。     

Taphonomic analysis of small mammal bone remains preyed upon by wildcats (Carnivora: Felidae) from the central Monte Desert (Mendoza,Argentina)

The present study analysed the taphonomic characteristics of small mammal bone accumulations produced by small felids in an area from the central Monte Desert (Mendoza, Argentina). In order to provide criteria to identify the role that these predators had in the formation of zooarchaeological assemblages, the anatomical representation, bone breakage patterns and degrees of digestive corrosion were evaluated. The main taphonomic results are: low average values for the relative abundance of skeletal elements; greater representation of mandibles, maxillae, isolated incisors, humeri and femora than the remaining elements; preponderance of cranial elements with high proportion of isolated teeth; elevated frequencies of proximal limb bones compared with distal parts; high degree of breakage in all skeletal elements and digestive corrosion on almost all diagnostic bones (mainly moderate and heavy). The values of the studied taphonomic variables indicate that small felids in this area made severe alterations to the bones of their prey (mainly rodents), attributable to the category of extreme modifier, while preserving enough skeletal elements to allow their taphonomic characterization. Tooth marks or grooves on bone surfaces produced by scratching and chewing were not detected. The low relative abundance of skeletal elements, the high degree of breakage and the elevated frequency of elements with digestion traces represent general taphonomic patterns that fall within those reported for other South American small carnivores.     

古湖泊学研究中的鱼化石埋藏学方法

鱼化石埋藏学方法在古湖泊环境研究中主要是利用鱼死亡及其骨骼解体和保存的方式 ,去推测湖泊的水文状况、沉积环境、群落结构、鱼类的生活史、死亡方式和保存特征等 ,这种方法的可行性取决于对现代湖泊中生物与环境对应关系的观察研究。在鱼化石埋藏学研究中 ,温度是决定鱼化石保存状况的主要因素 ,当水温在 1 5℃以上 ,多数鱼尸体就会因细菌腐解产生的气体而漂浮到水面 ,然后在水面上进一步腐烂 ,最后散落到湖底 ,或者被水流带到近岸区 ,遭受更强烈的破坏 ;当水温在 1 5℃以下时 ,鱼尸体可以保存在水底 ,直至被埋藏 ,在湖下层水氧气充足、有食腐动物生活的条件下 ,也可以被食腐动物破坏     

U—Series Dating of Fossil Bones：Results from Chinese Sites and Discussions on Its Reliability

Calculations,according to some open-system models,point out that while a statistically significant discrepancy between the results of two U-series methods,^230Th/^234U and ^227Th/^220Th(or ^231Pa/^235U),attests a relatively recent and important uranium migration,concordant dates cannot guarantee closes-system behavior of sample.The results of 20 fossil bones from 10 Chinese sites,19 of which are determined by two U-series methods,are given,Judging from independent age controls,8 out of the 11 concordant age sets are unacceptable,The results in this paper suggest that uranium may cycle into or out of fossil bones,such geochemical events may take place at any time and no known preserving condition may securely protect them from being affected.So for the sitew we have studied,the U-series dating of fossil bones is of limited reliability.     

中国古代牧业社会骨制品的初步考察:以新疆巴里坤石人子沟遗址为例

考古遗址出土骨制品的研究对于揭示古代社会的动物资源获取和利用、手工业生产、社会组织结构等问题具有重要意义.国内骨制品研究目前多集中在农业区域,这些研究为探讨新石器时代至青铜时代的动物使用及其与社会发展、早期国家形成的关系等问题作出了重要贡献.然而,针对牧业社会骨制品的考察十分缺乏.新疆哈密地区巴里坤草原分布有大量古代牧业文化遗址,石人子沟遗址(43°31′12.8″~43°34′28.9″N,93°13′44.8″~93°16′49.1″E)是其中一处青铜时代晚期至铁器时代早期的大型聚落.本文从动物考古学视角研究该遗址2006年至2011年发掘出土的426件骨制品.结果显示,石人子沟遗址骨制品的原料主要为以羊(Ovis aries/Capra hircus)、马(Equus caballus)为主的家养动物和以鹿(Cervidae)为主的野生动物,其中羊的比例最高(69.7%),鹿(13.8%)、马(2.3%)次之,这与中原地区青铜时代农业文化遗址的骨制品多以牛为原料的情况明显不同.羊在骨制品原料中占绝对多数且大量使用羊距骨制品的现象是对石人子沟遗址以牧业为主的生业经济方式的直接反映.石人子沟遗址不同类型骨制品的制作各具特点,但整体表现出"省时省力"的特点,即对使用部位细致打磨,对非使用部位仅做简单处理.与中原地区商周时期大型制骨作坊规范化、规模化、产业化的骨器生产不同,石人子沟遗址未见专门的制骨场所,骨制品生产的操作链条也并不完整.遗址的骨制品生产可能是以家庭为单元进行的,产品的专业化、精细化程度也相对较低.该研究填补了我国古代牧业文化遗址出土骨制品动物考古学专门研究的空白,为进一步探究我国古代不同区域、不同生业经济基础下的制骨手工业面貌提供了重要资料.     

我国“北京人”、“兰田人”和“元谋人”产地骨化石中氨基酸的地球化学

氨基酸是生命物质中普遍存在的一类重要的有机化合物,它是构成蛋白质的“砖块”。一个最简单的氨基酸分子至少必须含有一个羧基和一个氨基的官能团。在生物的蛋白质中通常只包括有二十种氨基酸,叫做蛋白氨基酸。但是自然界还存在其它种类的氨基酸,因为它们一般不存在于蛋白质中,所以叫做非蛋白氨基酸。除了最简单的甘氨酸外,所有的氨基酸都含有一个以上的不对称的碳原子。含有一个不对称碳原子的氨基酸可以存在L和D型两种结构的对映体。所有的蛋白质氨基酸都属L构型。     

河南博爱西金城遗址人和动物骨的碳氮稳定同位素分析

中原地区是中国文明起源和国家形成的核心区域,农业的发展在某种程度促成了中华文明在这一地区的最终形成.农业经济的转变对先民食物结构和动物饲养方式都产生了影响,但目前的研究多为某一时间段的研究,需要长时间段的考量.对西金城遗址(35°06′22″N,113°06′53″E)出土的龙山文化、汉代和唐宋时期的人和动物骨骼开展了碳氮稳定同位素分析,分析结果表明:龙山文化时期西金城先民(δ13C=-9.3±3.1‰,δ15N=8.5±1.3‰,n=3)的食物结构以C4类(粟、黍)为主,其生计方式是以粟等旱作农业为主,并辅以少量的稻作农业生产,兼有稳定的家畜饲养和捕捞业.就动物食物结构而言,龙山文化时期以猪、狗为代表的家畜的食物结构和人类相似,先民主要用粟黍类作物副产品喂养家畜;汉代随着小麦、大豆等C3类农作物的推广普及,家畜的δ13C值降低,更多的小麦等作物被用于喂养家畜.唐宋时期虽然小麦的地位进一步上升,形成了"粟麦并重"的农作物格局,但先民却仍然偏向于用C4植物(粟黍)喂养家畜.     

Age determination of Quaternary deposits as indicated by ionium method applied to relics of bones

The ages of the first and third floodplain terraces at Igarka, on the Yenisey river, were found to be 42,000 and 100,000 years (table 2), using as test materials petrified bones from permafrost rocks in positions where neither adsorbtions nor losses of radioactive elements could have significantly altered their original concentrations in the samples, as happened elsewhere. —V.P. Sokoloff.     

A test of uranium-series dating of fossil tooth enamel: results from Tournal Cave,France

A series of well preserved mammal bones and horse teeth was analyzed from archaeological levels of Tournal Cave (Magdalenian, Aurignacian, and Mousterain) to test the hypothesis that well-crystallized enamel behaves more as a closed system than does whole bone. The isotopic composition of bones and tooth enamels from this deposit meet criteria for confidence, and gave no reasons to suspect contamination or open-system behavior. Two samples for which²³¹Pa could be analyzed showed internal concordance with the respective²³⁰Th ages. In spite of the favourable isotopic criteria, however, comparison of the U-series ages of the bones and the tooth enamel with stratigraphic position and¹⁴C control indicated the dates were not meaningful. In general, both bones and tooth enamels gave ages too young, although some were clearly too old. Neither group showed any systematic increase of age with stratigraphic depth. Tooth enamel, therefore, shows no advantage over bone for U-series dating for this site. In Tournal cave both bones and enamel are apparently open to U, which is probably cycling as a consequences of post-depositional groundwater movement.     

Timescales and mechanisms of REE and Hf uptake in fossil bones

Rare earth element (REE) patterns of fossil bones and teeth are widely used as proxies for provenance, taphonomy, and palaeoenvironment. In order to investigate if fossil bones behave as closed systems over geologic time, REE profiles were analysed by LA-ICPMS along cross sections of 54 bones from various well-characterised and well-dated settings. These include terrestrial and marine diagenetic environments, covering Early Triassic to Holocene ages. In general, all fossil bones exhibit the highest REE concentrations at the outer rim, gradually decreasing by up to four orders of magnitude toward the inner bone cortex. Intra-bone REE concentration gradients decrease significantly from Quaternary via Tertiary to Mesozoic specimens, suggesting long term REE uptake and open system behaviour of fossil bone. This view is further corroborated by ¹⁷⁶Lu-¹⁷⁶Hf dating of selected samples, all yielding significantly younger ages than the known chronostratigraphic ages. Hence, there is clear evidence for long term open system behaviour of fossil bones with respect to REE, which is in marked contrast to currently accepted models suggesting that REE uptake is only early diagenetic. Although unexpected, statistically significant four to seven point isochrons are observed for four fossil dinosaur bone samples and one Upper Triassic Mastodonsaurus tooth with MSWDs ranging from 0.083 to 4.5. Notably, mobility of Lu alone cannot account for the observed age patterns. Assuming constant Lu uptake rates over time, the radiometric ages should only be as low as half of the chronostratigraphic age. However, a six-point isochron defined by subsamples of a single Upper Triassic Mastodonsaurus tooth yields an age of 65.2 ± 1.1 Ma (MSWD = 0.68), much younger than half of the stratigraphic age (ca. 234 Ma). Hence, Hf must also undergo late diagenetic exchange. Likely mechanisms to account for the presence of statistically meaningful isochrons as well as for the late diagenetic exchange of both REE and Hf are diffusion, adsorption, and dissolution-reprecipitation processes.     

Avian and mammalian bone taphonomy in southern continental Patagonia: A comparative approach

In southern Patagonia, the occurrence of large seabird nesting colonies condition the features of the regional bone record, which is characterized by a large amount of bird remains, despite their small body size. Bird and mammal bones have remarkably different taphonomic histories in this region: mammal remains are less damaged by carnivores and resist weathering for long periods, whereas bird bones show a greater initial destruction by carnivore activities and faster deterioration by weathering. A comparison of these results with results from research conducted in several African parks (particularly Amboseli) shows that differences in both records are mainly due to differences in community composition and predator–prey dynamics in both ecosystems. Furthermore, while in both ecosystems bird bones weather more rapidly than mammal bones, destruction by this process is more rapid in Patagonia. Overall, the analysis reinforces the need to generate specific models to understand taphonomic histories of archaeofaunal assemblages from Patagonia.     

High-resolution records of location and stratigraphic provenance from the rare earth element composition of fossil bones

Bone apatite acts as a natural, timed sampling device, scavenging trace elements from local pore waters over timescales of ca. 1-50 ka. The rare earth element (REE) and U/Th composition of fossil bones reflects associated pore water compositions during the period of recrystallisation. The REE composition of fossil bones is controlled by partitioning of REE between pore waters and particle surfaces, and the REE composition of fossil bones reflects the REE composition of pore waters which vary spatially and temporally. Light REE are preferentially sorped onto particle surfaces, thus the high La/Yb values seen in many bones from coastal marine and aeolian environments are best explained by release of REE from light REE-enriched particles to local pore waters and subsequent immobilisation in recrystallising bones. The REE compositions of bones recovered from pedogenically altered diatomite sediments of the Olorgesailie Formation of southern Kenya vary over spatial scales of less than 10 m. Location accounts for 48% of the observed variation in bone chemistry and bones recovered from eight discrete excavations within the same time-equivalent stratigraphic layer can be assigned to their excavation location with >70% accuracy based on a discriminant analysis of REE, U, and Th composition. Despite this within-layer variation, bones recovered from different stratigraphic horizons within the Olorgesailie Formation can also be distinguished on the basis of their trace element composition. Bones recovered from four stratigraphic horizons spanning ca. 0.5 million years were assigned to their correct stratigraphic layer with >90% accuracy. Where sedimentological conditions are favourable, the trace element composition of fossil bone may be used to test stratigraphic provenance and burial location in excavated bone with a temporal resolution of <10 ka and a spatial resolution of <10 m. The trace element composition of fossil bone may also be used to investigate the accumulation history of vertebrate assemblages and to reconstruct pore water variability across land surfaces.