Short-term morphological change and sediment dynamics in the intertidal zone of a macrotidal beach

This paper describes the morphological and sedimentological evolution of a macrotidal beach over a 20 day period under varying hydrodynamic conditions (significant breaker heights of 0·3–2 m and tidal ranges of 2–5 m). During the field campaign, an intertidal bar developed around the mid‐tide level, migrated onshore, welded to the upper beach and was then flattened under energetic wave conditions. The bar had a wave breakpoint origin and its formation was triggered by a reduction in tidal range, causing more stationary water‐level conditions, rather than an increase in wave height. Most of the onshore bar migration took place while the bar was positioned in the inner to mid‐surf zone position, such that the bar moved away from the breakpoint and exhibited ‘divergent’ behaviour. The depth of disturbance over individual tidal cycles was 10–20% of the breaker height. Such values are more typical of steep reflective beaches, than gently sloping, dissipative beaches, and are considered to reflect the maximum height of wave‐generated ripples. The grain size distribution of surficial sediments did not vary consistently across the beach profile and temporal changes in the sedimentology were mostly unrelated to the morphological response. The lack of clear links between beach morphology and sedimentology may be in part due to shortcomings in the sampling methodology, which ignored the vertical variability in the sediment size characteristics across the active layer.     

不同水化状态下的压实膨胀土应力-应变-强度特征

为探讨水化状态对饱和压实膨胀土应力-应变-强度特征的影响,以压实度为95%的荆门弱膨胀土为研究对象,开展了2种典型水化状态下的固结与三轴试验,其中第1种水化状态采用常规饱和方法,第2种水化状态为试样自由膨胀至稳定状态。结果表明：（1）受变形约束条件与渗径的影响,不同水化状态下体膨胀率有较大差别;（2）第2种水化状态下的饱和压实膨胀土具有更大的硬化指数λ与膨胀指数κ、较小的弹性剪切模量,其有效内摩擦角为第1种水化状态下的77.2%,体现出膨胀土饱和强度的变动性;（3）2种水化状态下的固结曲线均呈现出明显的屈服现象,其屈服应力分别为123.2 kPa与94.5 kPa;（4）第1种水化状态下,低围压下试样应变软化与剪胀,高围压下应变强化与剪缩;第2种水化状态下试验围压范围内均发生剪缩和轻微的应变软化;（5）2种水化状态下试样在固结与剪切过程中均表现出超固结性,这种超固结性并非完全由先期固结压力所致,而是试样受荷过程中膨胀受到约束造成的;（6）不同水化饱和状态下初始孔隙比不同,膨胀势也不同,膨胀势与外部约束条件、排水条件、应力状态相互作用,造成其应力-应变-强度特征的差异性。     

Linking invertebrate burrow distributions (neoichnology) to physicochemical stresses on a sandy tidal flat: implications for the rock record

Invertebrate burrow distributions (neoichnology) across a modern tidal flat are presented as an analogue for interpreting the ichnology of palaeo‐tidal‐flat successions. Burrow distributions are linked to physical and chemical (physicochemical) stresses to establish the main controls on the distribution of biosedimentary structures. Across the tidal flat, there is clear heterogeneity in both the diversity of traces and the intensity of burrowing. This heterogeneity reflects a myriad of physicochemical stresses, with the sedimentation rate dominating burrow distributions. Across all substrates, the total area occupied by organisms rarely exceeds 3% of the tidal‐flat surface, and is commonly <1%; this equates to a bioturbation index value of one. To reach bioturbation index values of two to six, sediments must be available to biogenic reworking and/or recolonization. With an increasing sedimentation rate, substrates are rapidly buried and re‐exposed, which limits the time when a substrate is available to colonization. For palaeo‐ichnological studies, this research presents several key results. (i) Burrow cross‐cutting relationships in tidal‐flat successions commonly reflect natural heterogeneities in the areal distribution of infaunal communities, rather than infaunal tiering. (ii) Ichnofabric analysis of palaeo‐tidal flats with a high sedimentation rate would yield fabrics that reflect heterogeneities in the areal distribution of infaunal communities rather than variability in the physicochemical stresses of the environment. (iii) The composite trace‐fossil assemblage of tidal flats cannot be attributed to a single ichnofacies, but instead comprises elements typical of multiple ichnofacies. (iv) The main controls on trace assemblages across tidal flats in fully marine settings are sedimentological and include the sedimentation rate and, to a lesser extent, grain size.     

Cycling of trace metals (Mn, Fe, Mo, U, V, Cr) in deep pore waters of intertidal flat sediments

Trace metals (Mn, Fe, Mo, U, Cr, V) were studied in pore waters of an intertidal flat located in the German Wadden Sea. The study system is an example of a permeable tidal flat system where pore water exchange is affected by tidal driven pressure gradients besides diffusion. Permanently installed in situ samplers were used to extract pore waters down to 5 m depth throughout one year. The samplers were either located close to the tidal flat margin or in central parts of the tidal flat. Despite dynamic sedimentological and hydrological conditions, the general trends with depth in deep tidal flat pore waters are remarkably similar to those observed in deep sea environments. Rates of trace metal cycling must be comparably large in order to maintain the observed pore water profiles. Trace metals further show similar general trends with depth close to the margin and in central parts of the tidal flat. Seasonal sampling revealed that V and Cr vary concurrent with seasonal changes in dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration. This effect is most notable close to the tidal flat margin where sulphate, DOC, and nutrients vary with season down to some metres depth. Seasonal variations of Mn, Fe, Mo, and U are by contrast limited to the upper decimetres of the sediment. Their seasonal patterns depend on organic matter supply, redox stratification, and particulate matter deposited on sediment surfaces. Pore water sampling within one tidal cycle provides evidence for pore water advection in margin sediments. During low tide pore water flow towards the creekbank is generated by a hydraulic gradient suggesting that deep pore waters may be seeping out of creekbank sediments. Owing to the enrichment of specific elements like Mn in pore water compared to sea water, seeping pore waters may have an impact on the chemistry of the open water column. Mass balance calculations reveal that the impact of deep pore waters on the Mn budget in the open water column is below 4%. Mn deep pore water discharge of the whole Wadden Sea is estimated to be about 9% of the total dissolved riverine Mn input into the Southern North Sea.     

中国淤泥质潮滩沉积研究的进展

中国淤泥质潮滩积研究由早期的野外地貌，沉积的定性描述到详细的动力地貌过程的半定量定量研究，时间尺度已由长期至一周、一天。“波浪掀沙、潮流输沙”的物理过程的征兵听数学模拟研究淤泥质潮滩侵蚀、堆积的机制提供了一个很好的途径。     

潮滩表层沉积物磁性特征的季节性变化及其对沉积动力作用的响应:以杭州湾北岸为例

根据2004年9月—2005年8月杭州湾北岸中潮滩固定观测点重复采集的表层沉积物的磁学参数和粒度分析,探讨了研究区域潮滩沉积物磁学性质的季节性变化及其对沉积动力的响应。 结果表明, 该观测点潮滩沉积物磁学参数存在显著的月际变化,2004年12月底—2005年5月上旬的半年中,SIRM、χARM、χfd%、χARM/χ、χARM/SIRM等参数出现高值,指示了沉积物中含有较多的细晶粒亚铁磁性矿物,对应于潮滩淤积时段和较细的沉积物粒级组成,其余各月上述磁参数值较低,对应于潮滩沉积物较粗的侵蚀期。上述结果表明,沉积物的磁性特征可以很好地反映潮滩冲淤过程中沉积动力的变化。     

The effect of geomorphological setting on Holocene lake sediment variability,northern Swedish Lapland

Comparison of catchment geomorphology and lithostratigraphical analysis of sediments in two small neighbouring alpine lakes show that the minerogenic influx into the lakes has varied significantly during the Holocene, despite similarities in environmental setting. One lake contains a homogeneous organic‐rich sediment sequence whereas the sediment of the other lake is laminated and has a higher minerogenic content. X‐ray radiographs are used to visualise lithostratigraphical structures and provide high‐resolution density data. We find that moderate differences in geomorphology and process activity in the lakeshore region around alpine lakes can significantly affect the lake sediment composition. Minerogenic sediment accumulation rates vary strongly over time, owing to different depositional processes, which complicate temporal reconstructions. We also find that non‐glacial processes deposit minerogenic sediment layers with similar characteristics (high density, low organic content) as layers interpreted as having a glaciofluvial origin. This has implications for palaeoclimate studies based on proglacial lacustrine sediment. Our results indicate that erosion of surface sediments in the catchments characterised the early Holocene. A low and constant minerogenic inflow indicates that stable environmental conditions (with little fluvial erosion) were established in the catchments during the middle Holocene. The variability in sediment composition increased again in the late Holocene, possibly as a result of short‐term climate fluctuations superimposed on a general climate deterioration trend. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seasonality of modern pollen and sediment deposition in an estuarine context: the Severn Estuary Levels,southwest England

Recent sedimentological and palynological research on subfossil Holocene banded sediments from the Severn Estuary Levels suggested seasonality of deposition, registered by variations in mineral grain‐size and pollen assemblages between different parts of the bands. Here we provide data that strengthen this interpretation from sampling of modern sediments and pollen deposition on an active mudflat and saltmarsh on the margin of the Severn Estuary, and comparison with a vegetation survey and contemporary records of climate, river and tidal regimes. The results of grain‐size analysis indicate deposition of comparatively coarse‐grained silts during the relatively cool and windy conditions of winter and comparatively fine‐grained sediments during relatively warm and calm summer months. Pollen analysis demonstrates the significance of long‐term storage of pollen grains and fern spores in the estuarine waterbody, superimposed on which seasonal variations in pollen inputs from local and regional vegetation remain detectable. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Model Study of the Estuarine Turbidity Maximum along the Main Channel of the Upper Chesapeake Bay

A three-dimensional, intratidal sediment transport model is developed for the estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) in the upper Chesapeake Bay. The model considers three particle size classes, including the fine class mostly in suspension in the water column, the medium class alternately suspended and deposited by tidal currents, and the coarse size suspended only during the times of relatively high energy events. Based on the results of a box model, depth-limited erosion with continuous deposition is employed for the medium and coarse classes by varying the critical shear stress for erosion as a function of eroded mass. For the fine class, mutually exclusive erosion and deposition is employed with a small constant value for the critical shear stresses for erosion and deposition to assure quick erosion of recently deposited fine particles but without allowing further erosion of consolidated bed sediments. The model is run to simulate the annual condition in 1996, and the model generally gives a reasonable reproduction of the observed characteristics of the ETM relative to the salt limit and tidal phase. The model results for 1996 are analyzed to study the characteristics of the ETM along the main channel of the upper bay in intertidal and intratidal time scales. Under a low flow condition, local erosion/deposition and bottom horizontal flux convergence are the main processes responsible for the formation of the ETM, with the settling flux confining the ETM to the bottom water. Under a high flow condition, a distinctive ETM is formed by strong convergence of the downstream flux of sediments eroded from the upstream of the null zone and the upstream flux of sediments settled at the downstream of the null zone. Intratidal variation of the ETM is mainly controlled by erosion and the tidal transport of eroded sediments for a low flow condition. Under the direct influence of a high flow event, the ETM is mainly formed by erosion during ebbing tidal current strengthened by large freshwater discharge and by convergence of ebbing freshwater discharge and flooding tidal current. During the rebounding stage of a high flow event, intratidal variations are mainly controlled by tidal asymmetry caused by the interaction between tidal currents, gravitational circulation, and stratification.     

Sedimentological proof and dating of the Early Holocene volcanic eruption of Ulmener Maar (Vulkaneifel,Germany)

A minerogeniclayer occurs in early postglacial organic sediments from five maar lakes (West Eifel Volcanic Field, Germany). The mineralogy and stratigraphic position of this tephra suggests that it is related to the youngest German volcano, Ulmener Maar, nearby. Radiocarbon dating of wood from the base of the Ulmener Maar Tephra at two locations provide ages in agreement with an accelerator mass spectrometer ¹⁴C date for the minerogenic layer from sediments of Lake Holzmaar situated 13 km south-west of Ulmener Maar. The mean radiocarbon age is 9 560 years BP. Dating by varve chronology provides an age of 10017 years VT (varve time in years before 1950) or 10 895 years corrected VT. Based on palynology the Ulmener Maar Tephra was deposited at the end of the Preboreal. High values of natural remnant magnetization intensity, typical of pyroclastic material, confirm that this minerogenic layer differs in composition from other clastic deposits of the sedimentary record. Geochemical analyses reveal increased values of total trace elements for the Laacher See Tephra and Ulmener Maar Tephra. An isopach map based on thickness variations of the Ulmener Maar Tephra at five investigated maar lakes indicates that the tephra was mainly transported to the south west.     

Inter- and supratidal sedimentology of a fjord-head estuary, south-western British Columbia

Detailed examination of inter- and supratidal delta and floodplain sediments exposed in eroding bank sections at 52 locations along the Squamish River estuary provides the basis for recognizing seven distinct facies within the 5500 m-long estuary. Estuary sedimentation is initially driven by the development of sand bar complexes along the seaward edge of the intertidal delta. Sedimentation continues within interdistributary bay environments as intertidal sandflats and then tidal marshes develop, Aggradation of the delta within interdistributary bay environments results in a gradual transition from delta to alluvial plain. Of the seven facies identified, only the intertidal sands and tidal marsh deposits provide evidence of their tidal origin. Examination of deposits throughout the riverine estuary reveals a number of gradual yet distinct changes of sediment size, structure, and sequence architecture. These trends record the changing nature of tidal and riverine control on sedimentation along the tidal gradient. Generally, with increasing distance up-estuary, sediment grain-size increases, the thickness of fine-grained overbank deposits decreases, and bedding changes from fine parallel bedding to higher energy bedforms. In addition, fining-upward successions become capped by coarser sands, facies contacts change from gradational to abrupt and occasionally erosional, and facies successions become increasingly complex and less predictable. Squamish River estuary has been divided into four zones based on sedimentological and stratigraphical evidence, each zone reflecting changes in the relative influence of tidal and riverine control on sedimentation. Each zone contains distinctly different facies sequences, although zone boundaries generally are gradational.     

惠州凹陷A区块珠海组潮汐沉积层序地层与储层分布预测

惠州凹陷珠海组沉积时期,海侵自西南方向进入凹陷,潮流对来自西北方向的古珠江三角洲沉积物有强烈改造作用,在凹陷西南部形成近海潮汐沉积,研究区以潮坪沉积作用为主。运用高分辨率层序地层学原理分析了A/S值变化过程中潮汐相的沉积学与地层学响应,以岩心、测井资料为基础,对珠海组进行了高频基准面旋回划分。在时间地层单元格架内,以潮汐相沉积模式为指导,以井—震界面标定与追踪后的三维数据体为基础,运用地震沉积学分析方法和地层切片技术,优选地震属性,对研究区储层分布进行了预测,分析了其时空演化特征,为该区油气勘探与开发提供了依据。     

对欠固结土的超固结比的探讨

欠固结土是在自重作用下尚未固结完成的土,欠固结土的超固结比（overconsolidation ratio,简称OCR）取值在现有文献中可见两种不同的表述,分别是等于1和小于1,这容易导致概念混淆和超固结比取值误用等问题。对国内外使用较为广泛的土力学教材中超固结比相关内容进行了整理,发现超固结比有两种不同的定义表达式,这两种表达式中分母的不同是导致欠固结土超固结比取值差异的根源。采用知识图谱法,对超固结比和欠固结土的概念内涵、历史源头和研究应用等进行了综合分析,结果表明：研究欠固结土相关问题时,采用固结度或固结状态参数作为分析变量可完全替代超固结比的作用;将超固结比定义为前期固结应力与现有有效应力的比值（即OCR = p_c /p′₀,p_c为前期有效固结压力,p′₀为竖直有效应力）,契合应力历史对土体工程特性影响的内在机制,也符合概念的历史渊源。     

Estimates of effective stress beneath a modern West Antarctic ice stream from till preconsolidation and void ratio

Preconsolidation stress recorded in subglacial sediments provides important information about subglacial effective stresses. It is commonly used to reconstruct past effective stresses from sediments left after ice retreat. In this article, we use properties of sub‐ice‐stream till samples to estimate effective stresses beneath a modern West Antarctic ice stream. Two previous estimates of sub‐ice‐stream effective stress were derived for the Upstream B (UpB) area of Ice Stream B from shear wave velocities (50 ± 40 kPa, Blankenship et al 1987) and borehole water level measurements (63 ± 24 kPa, Engelhardt & Kamb 1997). However, geotechnical tests performed on samples of the UpB till have shown that if subjected to effective stress of 50–63 kPa this till would have significantly lower porosity (?0.32–0.35) and higher strength (?‐22–28 kPa) than it apparently has in situ (?0.4 and ?2kPa). We derive new estimates of sub‐ice‐stream effective stress using: (1) Casagrande's construction applied to the results of six confined uniaxial tests, and (2) a combination of void‐ratio data for 51 till samples and 3 experimentally constrained equations describing compressibility of the UpB till under normal consolidation, overconsolidation and in the critical state. Casagrande's method yields an upper bound on effective stress of 25 kPa for four till samples and values of 13, and 4.4kPa for two other samples. The void‐ratio approach gives 11.7 ± 2.6 (normal consolidation), 18.3 ± 4.4 (overconsolidation) and 2.0 ± 0.8 kPa (critical state). These new, lower estimates of effective stress are consistent with the low till strength that has been independently measured and inferred from recent theoretical ice‐stream models. Our interpretation of data on till void ratio in terms of sub‐ice‐stream effective stress means that we can qualitatively evaluate the nature of the vertical distribution of this stress in the UpB till layer. We infer that in the sampled top 3 m of till the effective‐stress distribution is non‐hydrostatic, probably close to lithostatic. The results may be useful in future modeling of ice‐stream behavior and may aid efforts to delineate paleo‐ice streams based on their geologic record.     

Sources and history of heavy metal contamination and sediment deposition in Tivoli South Bay, Hudson River, New York

Persistent inorganic constitutents preserved in sediments of aquatic ecosystems record temporal variability of biogeochemical functioning and anthropogenic impacts.²¹⁰Pb and¹³⁷Cs dating techniques were used to study the past variations of heavy metals (Pb, Cu, and Zn) and accumulation rates of sediments for Tivoli South Bay, in the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve ecosystem. South Bay, a tidal freshwater embayment of the Hudson, may play an important role in the sediment dynamics of this important river. The measured sedimentation rate range of 0.59 to 2.92 cm yr⁻¹ suggests that rapid accumulation occurred during the time period represented by the length of the cores (approximately the past 50 yr). Direct measurements of sediment exchange with the Hudson River reveal high variability in the sediment flux from one tidal cycle to the next. Net exchange does not seem to be adequate to explain sediment accumulation rates in the bay as measured by²¹⁰Pb and¹³⁷Cs. The difference may be supplied from upland streams or the Hudson River during storm events. Concentrations of the metals Pb, Cu and Zn were found to be well correlated with each other within individual cores at five of six sites tested. This suggests a common proximate source for the three metals at a specific site. The evidence is consistent with mixing in some environmental compartment before delivery to the bay. While metals self-correlate within individual cores, absolute concentrations, depth distribution patterns, and ratios of the metals to each other vary among the cores collected at different locations within the bay. Organic matter, Fe content, and particle size distribution of sediments do not account for the intercore variations in metal concentration. It is likely that cores collected from different sites may have derived metals from different sources, such as watershed streams and tidal exchange with the Hudson River.     

淤长型潮滩剖面形态演变模拟: 以江苏中部海岸为例

在泥质、砂质物质共存的淤长型潮滩, 其剖面的塑造受到潮流作用下堆积过程的控制.为探讨这种潮滩剖面的演变过程, 以江苏中部海岸为研究对象建立了大小潮周期性作用下的潮滩剖面演变模型, 模拟了潮滩均衡态剖面形态与初始坡度、潮差、沉积物供应量之间的关系及潮滩的持续淤长剖面.模拟结果表明: (1)淤长型潮滩剖面达到均衡态时的形态是上凸的, 且与初始形态无关; (2)在外源一定的条件下, 潮滩的宽度与潮差呈正相关; (3)外源物质供应越丰富, 潮滩宽度越大; (4)潮滩的冲淤状态由沉积物的供应量决定; (5)对大潮高潮位附近的无沉积带进行充填可实现对其长期持续淤长剖面的模拟; (6)有丰富沉积物来源的潮滩, 在调整至均衡态后仍持续向海淤长, 并在淤长过程中保持均衡态; (7)当在模型中输入有关江苏海岸的参数时, 模拟的潮滩宽度和坡度与江苏海岸的潮滩一致.      

无人机技术在潮滩地貌演变研究中的应用

随着海平面上升和人类活动加剧,潮滩正面临着严重威胁,掌握其形态变化规律是研究潮滩系统对外在条件响应的直接手段。以江苏斗龙港潮滩为研究对象,利用无人机倾斜摄影测量技术,结合运动恢复结构(Structure from Motion,SfM)算法,重建潮滩三维点云,生成数字高程模型和正射影像,分析潮滩滩面及潮沟系统年内变化规律。研究结果表明:潮滩高程测量精度优于9 cm,水平精度优于2 cm;高程年内变化较大,变幅高达±0.5 m;潮沟短历时变化剧烈,无明显季节性变化特征;潮沟发育过程中,宽深比范围为10~25。无人机技术不仅可以监测粉砂淤泥质潮滩滩面变化趋势,还可以观测到卫星难以捕获的中小型潮沟短历时发育过程,可为监测河口海岸短周期动力地貌过程提供有力的技术支持。     

Sedimentology,ichnology and hydrodynamics of strait‐margin,sand and gravel beaches and shorefaces: Juan de Fuca Strait,British Columbia,Canada

On the south‐west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada, sedimentological and ichnological analysis of three beach–shoreface complexes developed along a strait margin was undertaken to quantify process–response relations in straits and to develop a model for strait‐margin beaches. For all three beaches, evidence of tidal processes are expressed best in the lower shoreface and offshore and, to a lesser extent, in the middle shoreface. Tidal currents are dominant offshore, below 18 m water depth (relative to the mean spring high tide), whereas wave processes dominate sediment deposition in the nearshore (intertidal zone to 5 m water depth). From 18 to 5 m water depth, tidal processes decrease in importance relative to wave processes. The relatively high tidal energy in the offshore and lower shoreface is manifest sedimentologically by the dominance of sand, of a similar grain size to the upper shoreface/intertidal zone and, by the prevalence of current‐generated structures (current ripples) oriented parallel to the shoreline. In addition, the offshore and lower shoreface of strait‐bound beach–shoreface complexes are recognized ichnologically by traces typical of the Skolithos Ichnofacies. This situation contrasts to the dominantly horizontal feeding traces characteristic of the Cruziana Ichnofacies that are prevalent in the lower shoreface and offshore of open‐coast (wave‐dominated) beach–shorefaces. These sedimentological and ichnological characteristics reflect tidal influence on sediment deposition; consequently, the term ‘tide‐influenced shoreface’ most accurately describes these depositional environments.     

Tidal Stage Changes in Structure and Diversity of Intertidal Benthic Diatom Assemblages: a Case Study from Two Contrasting Charleston Harbor Flats

Benthic microalgae are key contributors to near-shore food webs and sediment stabilization. Temporal variability in microalgal biomass and production throughout the tidal cycle has been well documented; however, due to limitations of traditional methods of analysis patterns of community composition and diversity over such time scales have not been revealed. To explore the latter and better understand how short-term changes throughout the tidal cycle may affect community functioning, we compared benthic diatom composition and diversity over tidal stage shifts. We employed two disparate molecular techniques (denaturing gel gradient electrophoresis with Sanger DNA sequencing of excised bands and high-throughput community metagenome sequencing) to characterize diatom assemblages in representative muddy and sandy intertidal sites in Charleston Harbor, SC, USA. In support of prior studies, we found higher diatom diversity in sandbar as compared to mudflat sediments. Spatial differences were stronger relative to tidal temporal differences, although diversity metrics generally were highest after prolonged tidal immersion as compared to low-tide emersion or just after immersion at flood tide. Composition of the diatom assemblage differed markedly between sites, with species in genera Halamphora, Amphora, and Navicula dominating the sandbar, whereas Cyclotella, Skeletonema, and Thalassiosira were the most prevalent genera on the mudflat. Diatom composition differed by tidal stage, with assemblages during low-tide exposure distinct from samples taken after immersion. Both sandbar and mudflat sediments exhibited increases in relative proportion of epipelic diatoms and decreases in planktonic taxa during low-tide exposure. Our findings of short-term changes in species composition and dominance could inform primary productivity models to better estimate understudied diatom contributions in heterogeneous and highly variable tidal systems.