中国西天山东段的构造层次研究

西天山东段的构造变形分为三个构造层次。即：深部构造层次、中部构造层次和浅部构造层次。深部构造层次以韧性剪切，塑性压扁，顶界劈理发育为特征，应变强度平均为１．０３．压缩量平均为６３％。中部构造层次以等厚褶皱，同斜倒转褶皱和逆冲推覆断层为主的脆韧性变形为特征，断层总体为叠瓦扇状逆冲断层系。该层次的应变强度平均为０．６７，压缩量平均为４４％。浅部构造层以宽缓的断层转折褶皱，断层传播褶皱及造山带向盆地仰冲为主的脆性变形为特征，断层伴有大量的水平走滑。该层次的应变强度平均为０．２８，压缩量平均为２４％。     

“西康式”褶皱及其变形机制——一种新的造山带褶皱类型

在松潘—甘孜造山带的三叠系西康群复理石岩系中,普遍发育着一种特殊的同劈理直立褶皱,作者称为“西康式”褶皱。这类褶皱的特点是:其褶皱枢纽倾状角是变化的;具有圆滑—同心褶皱、尖楞褶皱及过渡型褶皱等多种复合褶皱形式;由不同类型劈理构成复杂的折射劈理图形;在流劈理面上发育有垂直的拉伸线理。根据微构造分析和有限应变测量表明,这类褶皱是由压扁、纯剪切、纯剪切 简单剪切等三种变形机制的产物。其动力学基础是在三个板块和近于垂直的南北及东西方向挤压应力作用下,形成的叠加褶皱,推测形成深度为10～15km“西康式”褶皱的构造特征、形成机制及壮观程度上,完全可与世界著名的“侏罗山”型、“彭尼内”型造山带褶皱相比美,它是造山带中一种新的褶皱类型。     

辽南中生代造山期缩短滑脱与晚造山伸展拆离构造

该区的构造格局主要由早期近东西向紧闭的褶皱带和晚期北北东向构造组成。早期的南北向缩短构造以龙王庙平卧褶皱和大小长山岛的直立紧闭褶皱为代表,分别具有扇状间隔性压溶劈理和透入性轴面片理,褶面倒向以北为主。北北东向构造切割近东西向构造,表层表现为北西西向薄皮逆冲推覆构造,浅层构造具有扇状压溶劈理的紧闭褶皱,深层表现为基底与盖层间的拆离断层及其下的韧性剪切带。早期的研究者将该断层作为辽南推覆构造底部的滑脱面,现今则压倒性地采用变质核杂岩的构造理念。根据相关剪切带早期面内褶皱发育,晚期伸展褶劈理发育,通过运动学涡度和应力状态分析,论证早期滑脱-推覆到晚期伸展拆离的演化过程。野外观测证明,辽南基底变质岩西侧的金州断层为一伸展拆离断层,它切割东侧的董家沟断层,前者平行于下伏糜棱岩中的同向伸展褶劈理,后者平行下伏糜棱岩的糜棱面理。金州拆离断层的形成及其东侧的隆起标志着辽南构造体制从缩短到伸展的转折。根据相关的年代学研究,这一构造体制转化发生在早白垩世(约120～107 Ma)。该区最新的构造事件是北东-南西向的缩短,相关的北北东向的右行走滑断层与晚白垩世以来的郯庐断层活动方式一致。     

白银厂矿区劈理成因的磁组构分析

将磁性组构方法用于甘肃白银厂矿区的构造分析.结果表明该区岩石的磁性组构与岩石组构具有同一分布规律.岩石的磁线理与岩石的拉长线理L~a近于一致,磁面理与第一期劈理S_1基本平行,并垂直于岩石的磁化率椭球的最小主轴,也垂直于应变椭球的最短主轴方位,故推断第一期劈理S_1的成因主要属压扁成因.同时受到后期的多次变形与褶皱迭加影响.S_1轴面的优选面状分布发生变位不大,表明该区多次构造变形主要来自早期的同一主应力场作用所致.矿区岩石的磁面理与应变椭球拉长轴面或第一期劈理面S_1存在某些的角度差,表明该区岩石的劈理面由于受后期多次构造变形影响,可能发生剪切运动或旋转机制.     

脆-韧性转换带变形过程与机制:以郯庐断裂带南段为例

关于脆-韧性转换带的变形过程与机制,长期以来缺乏明确的认识。郯庐断裂带南段出露的新元古界张八岭群为浅变质火山-沉积岩系。这套岩层的韧性变形与低级变质作用发生在印支期,当时处于中地壳层次,是认识中地壳脆-韧性转换带变形特征与过程的天然对象。详细的构造研究表明,区内张八岭隆起北段出露的张八岭群呈现为平缓的韧性拆离带,而大别造山带东缘则为陡立的左行走滑韧性剪切带,两者代表了中地壳不同类型的变形带,这两类变形带在印支期递进变形中经历了相似的变形转换,即早阶段透入性韧性变形和晚阶段脆-韧性变形。早阶段韧性变形中,发育片内A型褶皱和透入性面理和矿物拉伸线理为特征的糜棱岩;晚阶段脆-韧性变形中,发育膝折、皱纹线理、褶劈理、石英脉、张裂隙、B型剪切褶皱等构造。变形早阶段应变软化促进了韧性变形的发展,而变形晚阶段降温所导致的应变硬化使得韧性变形无法继续,从而转变为脆-韧性变形。这些研究显示,中地壳脆-韧性转换带在深度不变的递进变形中是可以发生韧性向脆-韧性变形的转变。     

褶皱形成过程中常量元素的地球化学行为及岩石体变的估算问题

本文简要地论述了常量元素在弯曲滑动褶皱作用、弯曲流动褶皱作用、被动褶皱作用以及轴面折劈理和轴面流劈理形成过程中的地球化学行为,并将其与中—大型褶皱形成过程中常量元素的地球化学行为进行对比.笔者认为,褶皱形成过程中常量元素的活动性序列与岩石的矿物组成及结构构造、变形的温度、压力环境、交形机制以及孔隙溶液的物理化学性质均密切相关,任何试图建立一个普遍适用的元素活动性序列的想法都是不现实的.最后,本文论证了岩石组分含量初始分析值进行体积校正的必要性,并介绍了估算褶皱形成过程中岩石体积变化的方法.     

里德尔剪切：滑劈理的一种形成机制

微断裂中的倾斜标志层的拖曳褶皱（１）是滑劈理区别于其它类型劈理的标志。随里德尔剪切（Ｒ）发育的劈理，它与面理化岩石的各向异性面斜交并且与剪切带的各种角度（与α有关）相交。褶皱（２）在应变椭球体的ＸＺ面上发育，褶轴平行于高角度与Ｒ剪切相交的瞬态λ＿１。在递进剪切变形过程中，褶皱和劈理间的夹角发生了变化。在递进扭张带（α＜１）中，出现了最大的反向（反时针）Ｒ剪切旋转和祸皱间初始夹角的最大程度打开，达１７０°。从几何学上讲，这在简单剪切和压扭带中是不可能的，但是过长的Ｒ剪切的向前旋转受到了剪切带稳定的或逐渐变小的厚度的限制。细褶皱（３）增大了断裂的倾斜标志层的拖曳褶皱并在较高的应变下其轴面平行于劈理。在较高级褶皱（４）中，由于最初增量变形椭球体ＹＺ面上纯剪切和沿层间界线弯滑运动诱导的剪切作用影响，使得Ｒ剪切重新定位于轴平面位置。在它们垂直于谓轴的滑动中，褶皱翼部的拉伸和微劈石的非共轴变形使得以前的拖曳和细褶皱变形而呈一种特殊的型式。保存在劈理面上的条痕和／或微弱线理与剪切方向一致。劈理—褶皱截面、垂直劈理且平行于条痕线理的平面中的不对称构造都指示了剪切方向。     

北疆变质作用与构造活动

<正> 额尔齐斯构造带内的地质体,其空间上的展布格局是长期的变质作用和变形作用交错进行的结果,形成多期次多型式的变质叠加和构造叠加的产物。一、地槽阶段1、与冒地槽有关的变质作用属于这一类变质体是哈拉斯变质地带。恢复原岩为泥质砂岩,轻微变质,形成复理石建造。强烈的劈理化。劈理面平行褶皱轴面。新生矿物     

地球内部物质、能量交换与资源和灾害

通过对凤凰山岩体接触带的变质与变形特征、显微构造及变形缩短量的计算 ,分析了凤凰山岩体侵位与接触带变形及区域变形的关系。通过接触带变质矿物变形特征的研究 ,揭示了热变质作用与侵位变形的同时性 ;接触带构造变形研究表明 ,岩体周围发育的流变褶皱、韧性剪切带、压溶缝合线等与岩体左旋上升与汽球膨胀侵位有关 ;围岩缩短量的计算结果表明 ,岩体侵位过程造成强烈的围岩缩短是一种强力侵位机制。研究表明 ,凤凰山岩体侵位是在区域NNE向水平左旋剪切应力场作用下完成的。岩体接触带变形是NNE向水平左旋剪切应力与横向推挤的侵位应力联合作用下形成的。     

福建省长乐—南澳断裂带,平潭—东山褶皱带基本特征的研究

闽东南沿海变质带实际上是由平潭—东山褶皱带和长乐—南澳断裂带所组成,前者是复杂的基底褶皱带,后者是大型的脆-韧性剪切带,它大体上是前者的西界。褶皱带的褶皱样式反映岩石在变质与变形时处于强塑性压扁及流变的机制。微观构造研究进一步获得变质构造岩在固态流变中的运动学和动力学特征。区域变质作用的温度为540—600℃,压力2400—3600Mpa。变质作用的高峰期约距今170Ma。     

Cleavage-fold relationships and their implications for transected folds: an example from southwest Virginia,U.S.A.

A non-coaxial deformation involving pre-folding initiation of cleavage perpendicular to bedding is proposed to explain non-axial planar cleavage associated with mesoscopic folds in part of the Appalachian foreland thrust-belt of southwest Virginia. Folds are gently plunging, asymmetric, upright to slightly inclined, sinusoidal forms with non-axial fanning cleavage. They show extreme local variations in type and degree of transection and the consistency of transection direction. These relations are further complicated by hinge migration.Cleavage-fan angles, bedding-cleavage angles and δ transection values appear influenced by fold tightness, and in part by fold flattening strain. Fold flattening increments are considered simultaneous with folding. Axial surface traces, and not cleavage traces, coincide with the principal extension direction in fold profiles. Geometric modelling of cleavage fanning and bedding-cleavage angle variations for various theoretical folding modes suggest that folding in limestone and sandstone layers was by tangential longitudinal strain. Significant shape modification and change in bedding-cleavage relations occurred after limb dips of 40 and 50° were attained in limestone and sandstone respectively. Mud-rock class 1C folds with convergent cleavage fans show features transitional between buckling and flexural flow. Initiation of ‘cleavage’ fabrics during layer-parallel shortening prior to significant folding may be important for cleavage evolution in some deformed rocks.     

Deformation in the hinge region of a chevron fold,Valley and Ridge Province,central Pennsylvania

The hinge region of an asymmetrical chevron fold in sandstone, taken from the Tuscarora Formation of central Pennsylvania, U.S.A., was studied in detail in an attempt to account for the strain that produced the fold shape. The fold hinge consists of a medium-grained quartz arenite and was deformed predominantly by brittle fracturing and minor amounts of pressure solution and intracrystalline strain. These fractures include: (1) faults, either minor offsets or major limb thrusts, (2) solitary well-healed quartz veins and (3) fibrous quartz veins which are the result of repeated fracturing and healing of grains. The fractures formed during folding as they are observed to cross-cut the authigenic cement. Deformation lamellae and in a few cases, pressure solution, occurred contemporaneously with folding. The fibrous veins appear to have formed as a result of stretching of one limb: they cross-cut all other structures. Based upon the spatial relationships between the deformation features, we believe that a neutral surface was present during folding, separating zones of compression and extension along the inner and outer arcs, respectively. Using the strain data from the major faults, the fold can be restored back to an interlimb angle of 157°; however, the extension required for such an angle along the outer arc is much more than was actually measured. This disparity between observed and required deformation suggests that the rest of the folding strain may be attributed to minor faulting, isolated severe pressure solution and to slight grain movements; we were not able to recognize the latter. We propose that a single episode of deformation produced the chevron fold causing the brittle deformation after the sandstone had been lithified. This brittle deformation was accomplished by faulting together with the translation of individual sandstone blocks which do not contain significant internal deformation.     

Parasitic folds with wrong vergence: How pre-existing geometrical asymmetries can be inherited during multilayer buckle folding

Parasitic folds are typical structures in geological multilayer folds; they are characterized by a small wavelength and are situated within folds with larger wavelength. Parasitic folds exhibit a characteristic asymmetry (or vergence) reflecting their structural relationship to the larger-scale fold. Here we investigate if a pre-existing geometrical asymmetry (e.g., from sedimentary structures or folds from a previous tectonic event) can be inherited during buckle folding to form parasitic folds with wrong vergence. We conduct 2D finite-element simulations of multilayer folding using Newtonian materials. The applied model setup comprises a thin layer exhibiting the pre-existing geometrical asymmetry sandwiched between two thicker layers, all intercalated with a lower-viscosity matrix and subjected to layer-parallel shortening. When the two outer thick layers buckle and amplify, two processes work against the asymmetry: layer-perpendicular flattening between the two thick layers and the rotational component of flexural flow folding. Both processes promote de-amplification and unfolding of the pre-existing asymmetry. We discuss how the efficiency of de-amplification is controlled by the larger-scale fold amplification and conclude that pre-existing asymmetries that are open and/or exhibit low amplitude are prone to de-amplification and may disappear during buckling of the multilayer system. Large-amplitude and/or tight to isoclinal folds may be inherited and develop type 3 fold interference patterns.     

A theory of concentric, kink and sinusoidal folding and of monoclinal flexuring of compressible, elastic multilayers: V. asymmetric folding in interbedded chert and shale of the franciscan complex, san francisco bay area, california

The origin of tight, asymmetric, kink-like or chevron-like folds in interbedded shales and radiolarian cherts of the Franciscan Complex in the San Francisco Bay area has been somewhat of a mystery for many years. Stephenson Ellen provided many clues as to the origin and indicated that the folds became asymmetric as a result of layer-parallel shear. He believed that the original folds were conjugate kink folds.As a result of reexamination of most of the folds studied by Ellen, of experimentation with elastic multilayers and of the theories developed in Parts III and IV of this series of papers, we believe that the original folds were mostly chevron rather than kink folds. Thus, we suggest that the folds formed by a combination of layer-parallel shortening and layer-parallel shear when the rocks were soft and pore pressures were high.Several lines of evidence suggest that typical folds in the Franciscan are asymmetric chevron folds. A combination of theory of finite simple shear and of experimentation with elastic multilayers indicates that the tight folds of the Franciscan could have been produced by smaller angles of simple shear if the original folds were typical chevron folds rather than typical kink folds. Several field observations, including thickening of shales but not of cherts in hinges of folds and lack of deformation of radiolaria in the cherts, indicate that the cherts were soft and the shales very soft at the time of folding. The pore-water pressures in the shales probably were high. Such conditions theoretically favor concentric-like and chevron folding, not kink folding. Finally, most of the asymmetric folds in a quarry exposure can be reconstructed geometrically as typical chevron folds but not as typical kink folds subjected to simple shear.     

Fold propagation in single embedded layers

This paper investigates the folding of single competent layers embedded in a less competent matrix, where the competence contrast is about 10: 1. Folds result from buckling during layer-parallel compression. A geometrical study of natural examples shows that individual folds tend to be grouped into fold complexes.The amplitude varies from a maximum at the centre of a complex to a minimum at each end. Each complex is often centred about a sedimentary lens or nodule which may have triggered the folding and localized the complex. The formation of folds of this kind has been simulated experimentally by deformation of models made from paraffin waxes of known rheological properties. Early in the deformation of a model, buckling starts at a localized site of disturbance, producing only one fold. With further deformation, new folds appear at either side of the initial one. The buckling then propagates along the layering, further folds appearing serially in time and distance. The end result is a complex with many individual folds and a regularly periodic shape.With a competence contrast of 10: 1, the rate of fold propagation is slow, and formation of a periodic complex requires an overall shortening of at least 15%. The shapes of folds formed experimentally are similar to those formed naturally.     

On the production of two inclined cleavages during a single folding event; Stirling Range, S.W. Australia

In any one area of the Stirling Range Proterozoic low-grade fold-foreland, the first phase of folding to be associated with cleavage development has generated two inclined tectonic fabrics each of which is closely related in geometry to the folds. The most likely fold history has been determined by comparing predictions of theoretical fold mechanisms against the observed field relations and strain states seen in an arenite and minor mudrock multilayer. In an initial phase of folding dominated by layer-parallel shortening, a well-spaced mica-band cleavage was, initiated, intensified, and able to maintain a near axial plane relationship, until body rotation of limbs took over at a fold dihedral angle of about 140°. The resultant 70° angle between solution cleavage and bedding on the fold limbs was preserved by flexural slip until the fold had tightened to about 100° when, for mechanical reasons, flattening rapidly became important. During this phase, a mica-film cleavage, with grainscale spacing, developed approximately axial planar and the solution cleavage/bedding angle on the limbs was reduced to 55°.     

Strain patterns and shortening in a folded thrust sheet: An example from the southern appalachians

Total strain patterns estimated across the Pulaski thrust sheet of the southwest Virginia Appalachians show an approximately homogeneous, plane strain deformation associated with folding and distortion above a subsurface décollement. Estimated strains are low (1.2 < < 2.0) with a subvertical extension. Chlorite fibers in pressure fringes on framboidal pyrite indicate that non-rotational deformation produced weak cleavage and pencil structure in mudrock. Variations in shape of pencils and fiber lengths in pressure fringes define highest strains in fold hinges and adjacent to contraction faults. Fabric transitions, delineated by distribution and intensity of cleavage, pencil structure and bedding fissility across the thrust sheet are strain dependent. Balanced cross-sections suggest 35% horizontal shortening due to regional folding and faulting within the Pulaski sheet. Strain integration techniques give 17–35% horizontal shortening associated with cleavage formation. Removal of this strain indicates that cleavage was superposed on open to tight, class-3 folds. Pre-existing thickness variations and anomalous low strains in tight folds require early folding accomodated by intergranular deformation (perhaps controlled grainboundary sliding). Suppression of cleavage formation and penetrative strain was possibly due to higher pore fluid pressure in the early stages of thrust sheet deformation. Observed variations in bedding-cleavage angle and low cleavage fans are compatible with this deformation sequence.     

The determination of ‘buckling rotation’ and its application to theoretical and experimental models of buckle folds

The quantity ‘buckling rotation’ is defined, for buckle folds, as the total rotation of a fold limb minus the rotation that would occur due to pure shear if no competence contrast existed. Using existing models (theoretical and experimental) of buckle-fold development, the quantity ‘buckling rotation’ has been calculated for successive small increments of strain and plotted against strain or limb dip. The resulting curves are skewed and bell-shaped, indicating an initial sharp increase in buckling rotation early in fold development followed by a gentle, asymptotic decrease. The curve height and position are dependent on the competence contrast and, in multilayer systems, on the ratio of competent to incompetent layer thickness. The initial sharp increase in buckling rotation corresponds to the period of most active layer-parallel shortening during fold development.     

Early foreland deformation of the Fuegian Andes (Argentina): Constraints from the strain analysis of Upper Cretaceous-Danian sedimentary rocks

This contribution addresses new structural data from Upper Cretaceous-Danian sedimentary rocks of the Fuegian Andes orogenic front in Argentina. The structures studied, called D′, were formed during the early foreland deformation of the orogen, in the Late Cretaceous-Danian, in times when South America and Antarctica were still connected. The strain analysis of these structures indicates that deformation occurred at upper-crustal depths, and was characterized by flexural folding accompanied by formation of pressure-solution tectonic foliations in zones of higher strain. Deformation intensities increase toward the hinterland and with depth. The history of deformation involved progression from layer-parallel shortening to folding above a detachment, and further formation of a forward-propagating thrust wedge. Layer-parallel shortening and incipient folding recorded in Maastrichtian-Danian rocks indicate the leading edge of D′ deformation. Non-coaxial finite strain orientations were involved during formation of D′ structures along the Fuegian Andes front. These finite strain orientations cannot be explained with the SW-NE regional contraction usually assumed to have driven Andean deformation in this region; alternatively, we consider that N-S contraction combined with buttressing against the cratonic foreland comprise a more suitable interpretation for D′ and younger deformation.     

Kinematics of large scale asymmetric folds and associated smaller scale brittle — Ductile structures in the proterozoic somnur formation, pranhita — Godavari Valley, South India

The development of structural elements and finite strain data are analysed to constrain kinematics of folds and faults at various scales within a Proterozoic fold-and-thrust belt in Pranhita-Godavari basin, south India. The first order structures in this belt are interpreted as large scale buckle folds above a subsurface decollement emphasizing the importance of detachment folding in thin skinned deformation of a sedimentary prism lying above a gneissic basement. That the folds have developed through fixed-hinge buckling is constrained by the nature of variation of mesoscopic fabric over large folds and finite strain data. Relatively low, irrotational flattening strain (X:Z-3.1-4.8, k<1) are associated with zones of near upright early mesoscopic folds and cleavage, whereas large flattening strain (X:Z-3.9-7.3, k<1) involving noncoaxiality are linked to domains of asymmetric, later inclined folds, faults and intense cleavage on the hanging wall of thrusts on the flanks of large folds. In the latter case, the bulk strain can be factorized to components of pure shear and simple shear with a maximum shearing strain of 3. The present work reiterates the importance of analysis of minor structures in conjunction with strain data to unravel the kinematic history of fold-and-thrust belts developed at shallow crustal level.