A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANIC CONDITIONS BEFORE THE OCCURRENCE OF TWO TYPES OF EL NIO EVENTS

The atmospheric and oceanic conditions before the onset of EP El Ni?o and CP El Ni?o in nearly 30 years are compared and analyzed by using 850 hPa wind, 20℃ isotherm depth, sea surface temperature and the Wheeler and Hendon index. The results are as follows: In the western equatorial Pacific, the occurrence of the anomalously strong westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Its intensity is far stronger than that of the CP El Ni?o. Two months before the El Ni?o, the anomaly westerly winds of the EP El Ni?o have extended to the eastern Pacific region, while the westerly wind anomaly of the CP El Ni?o can only extend to the west of the dateline three months before the El Ni?o and later stay there. Unlike the EP El Ni?o, the CP El Ni?o is always associated with easterly wind anomaly in the eastern equatorial Pacific before its onset. The thermocline depth anomaly of the EP El Ni?o can significantly move eastward and deepen. In addition, we also find that the evolution of thermocline is ahead of the development of the sea surface temperature for the EP El Ni?o. The strong MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o in the western and central Pacific is earlier than that of the CP El Ni?o. Measured by the standard deviation of the zonal wind square, the intensity of MJO activity of the EP El Ni?o is significantly greater than that of the CP El Ni?o before the onset of El Ni?o.     

VARIABILITY OF INTER-ANNUAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE AND HUAXI REGION’S AUTUMN PRECIPITATION

The moving-window correlation analysis was applied to investigate the relationship between autumn Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events and the synchronous autumn precipitation in Huaxi region, based on the daily precipitation, sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric circulation data from 1960 to 2012. The correlation curves of IOD and the early modulation of Huaxi region’s autumn precipitation indicated a mutational site appeared in the 1970s. During 1960 to 1979, when the IOD was in positive phase in autumn, the circulations changed from a “W” shape to an ”M” shape at 500 hPa in Asia middle-high latitude region. Cold flux got into the Sichuan province with Northwest flow, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Western Pacific to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation increase in east Huaxi region. During 1980 to 1999, when the IOD in autumn was positive phase, the atmospheric circulation presented a “W” shape at 500 hPa, the positive anomaly of the water vapor flux transported from Bay of Bengal to Huaxi region strengthened, caused precipitation ascend in west Huaxi region. In summary, the Indian Ocean changed from cold phase to warm phase since the 1970s, caused the instability of the inter-annual relationship between the IOD and the autumn rainfall in Huaxi region.     

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS DATA OF AIR–SEA TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE AND ITS VARIATION ACROSS SOUTH CHINA SEA IN THE PAST 35 YEARS

Using the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set(ICOADS) and ERA-Interim data, spatial distributions of air-sea temperature difference(ASTD) in the South China Sea(SCS) for the past 35 years are compared,and variations of spatial and temporal distributions of ASTD in this region are addressed using empirical orthogonal function decomposition and wavelet analysis methods. The results indicate that both ICOADS and ERA-Interim data can reflect actual distribution characteristics of ASTD in the SCS, but values of ASTD from the ERA-Interim data are smaller than those of the ICOADS data in the same region. In addition, the ASTD characteristics from the ERA-Interim data are not obvious inshore. A seesaw-type, north-south distribution of ASTD is dominant in the SCS; i.e., a positive peak in the south is associated with a negative peak in the north in November, and a negative peak in the south is accompanied by a positive peak in the north during April and May. Interannual ASTD variations in summer or autumn are decreasing. There is a seesaw-type distribution of ASTD between Beibu Bay and most of the SCS in summer, and the center of large values is in the Nansha Islands area in autumn. The ASTD in the SCS has a strong quasi-3a oscillation period in all seasons, and a quasi-11 a period in winter and spring. The ASTD is positively correlated with the Nio3.4 index in summer and autumn but negatively correlated in spring and winter.     

汉江流域极端水文事件时空分布特征

利用1960-2012年汉江流域15个气象站点的日降雨资料和3个水文站同时期日径流资料,分析了9个极端降雨指数的空间分布规律,运用广义极值分布（GEV）、Gamma分布两种极值统计模型对各站点的最大1 d降雨、最大3 d降雨极值样本进行拟合,遴选描述降雨极值分布规律最优概率模型,进而推算给定重现期下的降雨设计值,并分析其空间分布规律;选用Gumbel、Clayton和Frank这3种Copula函数建立降雨-洪量极值联合分布模型,优选最合适的Copula函数,由此计算给定重现期下的洪量设计值。结果表明：GEV分布模型能更好地模拟降雨极值序列,不同重现期下的降雨极值在空间上均呈西低东高的特征;3种Copula函数中,Frank Copula函数能更好地拟合降雨-洪量相关关系,由此推求的洪量设计值大于单变量拟合设计值。     

宁波地区海-陆下垫面差异对雷暴过程影响的数值模拟

利用耦合Noah陆面过程的WRF模式对2009年6月5日傍晚发生在宁波地区的一次雷暴过程进行数值模拟,通过改变下垫面覆盖类型的敏感性试验,探讨了海洋和陆地下垫面对雷暴过程的影响。结果表明,WRF模式能够较合理地模拟出雷暴的发生、发展过程。雷暴发生前期,由于海-陆强烈的热力差异,海风特征明显,海风引起的抬升运动触发了雷暴,海风形成的强辐合区对应雷暴过程累积降水量的大值区。当研究区域全部被替换成陆地后,地表的粗糙度增大,在研究区域东部由于摩擦辐合加强,产生了强烈的上升运动,多个发展旺盛的对流单体在上升运动区生成,使雷暴产生的降水区域东扩、降水量增大、雷暴维持时间延长。当研究区域所有陆地被替换成水体后,白天地表通量减小,大气边界层中湍流运动减弱,边界层高度降低,大气层结变得稳定,不利于对流发展。     

An assessment of the predictability of the East Asian Subtropical Westerly Jet based on TIGGE data

The predictability of the position, spatial coverage and intensity of the East Asian subtropical westerly jet(EASWJ) in the summers of 2010 to 2012 was examined for ensemble prediction systems(EPSs) from four representative TIGGE centers,including the ECMWF, the NCEP, the CMA, and the JMA. Results showed that each EPS predicted all EASWJ properties well, while the levels of skill of all EPSs declined as the lead time extended. Overall, improvements from the control to the ensemble mean forecasts for predicting the EASWJ were apparent. For the deterministic forecasts of all EPSs, the prediction of the average axis was better than the prediction of the spatial coverage and intensity of the EASWJ. ECMWF performed best, with a lead of approximately 0.5–1 day in predictability over the second-best EPS for all EASWJ properties throughout the forecast range. For probabilistic forecasts, differences in skills among the different EPSs were more evident in the earlier part of the forecast for the EASWJ axis and spatial coverage, while they departed obviously throughout the forecast range for the intensity. ECMWF led JMA by about 0.5–1 day for the EASWJ axis, and by about 1–2 days for the spatial coverage and intensity at almost all lead times. The largest lead of ECMWF over the relatively worse EPSs, such as NCEP and CMA, was approximately 3–4 days for all EASWJ properties. In summary, ECMWF showed the highest level of skill for predicting the EASWJ, followed by JMA.     

淮河流域水文极值预测模型研究

为探索气候变化影响下水文极值的非平稳性和预测方法,建立了水文极值非平稳广义极值（GEV）分布的统计预测模型。利用1952-2010年淮河上游流域累计面雨量和流量年最大值资料、同期500 hPa环流特征量资料以及17个CMIP5模式对环流特征量的模拟结果,筛选出对水文极值影响显著的年平均北半球极涡强度指数作为GEV分布参数的预测因子。分析了在RCP2.6、RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下2006-2050年淮河上游流域水文极值对气候变化的响应。结果表明,10年以下与10年以上重现期的水文极值在非平稳过程中呈现前者下降而后者上升的相反变化趋势;多模型预测的集合平均在未来情景中均呈现上升趋势,情景排放量越大增幅越大,重现期越长增幅也越大。与极值的常态相比,极值的极端态更易受气候变化影响。     

ANALYSIS OF “BIMODAL PATTERN” STORM ACTIVITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAY OF BENGAL

Storms that occur at the Bay of Bengal (BoB) are of a bimodal pattern, which is different from that of the other sea areas. By using the NCEP, SST and JTWC data, the causes of the bimodal pattern storm activity of the BoB are diagnosed and analyzed in this paper. The result shows that the seasonal variation of general atmosphere circulation in East Asia has a regulating and controlling impact on the BoB storm activity, and the “bimodal period” of the storm activity corresponds exactly to the seasonal conversion period of atmospheric circulation. The minor wind speed of shear spring and autumn contributed to the storm, which was a crucial factor for the generation and occurrence of the “bimodal pattern” storm activity in the BoB. The analysis on sea surface temperature (SST) shows that the SSTs of all the year around in the BoB area meet the conditions required for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). However, the SSTs in the central area of the bay are higher than that of the surrounding areas in spring and autumn, which facilitates the occurrence of a “two-peak” storm activity pattern. The genesis potential index (GPI) quantifies and reflects the environmental conditions for the generation of the BoB storms. For GPI, the intense low-level vortex disturbance in the troposphere and high-humidity atmosphere are the sufficient conditions for storms, while large maximum wind velocity of the ground vortex radius and small vertical wind shear are the necessary conditions of storms.     

IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC LOW-FREQUENCY OSCILLATION ON THE IMMIGRATION OF NILAPARVATA LUGENS(STL) IN HUNAN AND JIANGXI PROVINCES

Various features of the atmospheric environment affect the number of migratory insects, besides their initial population. However, little is known about the impact of atmospheric low-frequency oscillation(10 to 90 days) on insect migration. A case study was conducted to ascertain the influence of low-frequency atmospheric oscillation on the immigration of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens(Stl), in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. The results showed the following:(1) The number of immigrating N. lugens from April to June of 2007 through 2016 mainly exhibited a periodic oscillation of 10 to 20 days.(2) The 10-20 d low-frequency number of immigrating N. lugens was significantly correlated with a low-frequency wind field and a geopotential height field at 850 h Pa.(3) During the peak phase of immigration, southwest or south winds served as a driving force and carried N. lugens populations northward, and when in the back of the trough and the front of the ridge, the downward airflow created a favorable condition for N. lugens to land in the study area. In conclusion, the northward migration of N. lugens was influenced by a low-frequency atmospheric circulation based on the analysis of dynamics. This study was the first research connecting atmospheric low-frequency oscillation to insect migration.     

Dominant cloud microphysical processes of a torrential rainfall event in Sichuan,China

High-resolution numerical simulation data of a rainstorm triggering debris flow in Sichuan Province of China simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model were used to study the dominant cloud microphysical processes of the torrential rainfall. The results showed that: (1) In the strong precipitation period, particle sizes of all hydrometeors increased, and mean-mass diameters of graupel increased the most significantly, as compared with those in the weak precipitation period; (2) The terminal velocity of raindrops was the strongest among all hydrometeors, followed by graupel’s, which was much smaller than that of raindrops. Differences between various hydrometeors’ terminal velocities in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, which favored relative motion, collection interaction and transformation between the particles. Absolute terminal velocity values of raindrops and graupel were significantly greater than those of air upward velocity, and the stronger the precipitation was, the greater the differences between them were; (3) The orders of magnitudes of the various hydrometeors’ sources and sinks in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, causing a difference in the intensity of precipitation. Water vapor, cloud water, raindrops, graupel and their exchange processes played a major role in the production of the torrential rainfall, and there were two main processes via which raindrops were generated: abundant water vapor condensed into cloud water and, on the one hand, accretion of cloud water by rain water formed rain water, while on the other hand, accretion of cloud water by graupel formed graupel, and then the melting of graupel formed rain water.     

Lightning Activity and Precipitation Characteristics of Typhoon Molave （2009） Around Its Landfall

Cloud-to-ground （CG） lightning data,storm intensity and track data,and the data from a Doppler radar and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission （TRMM） satellite,are used to analyze the temporal and spatial characteristics of lightning activity in Typhoon Molave （0906） during different periods of its landfall （pre-landfall,landfall,and post-landfall）.Parameters retrieved from the radar and the satellite are used to compare precipitation structures of the inner and outer rainbands of the typhoon,and to investigate possible causes of the different lightning characteristics.The results indicate that lightning activity was stronger in the outer rainbands than in the eyewall and inner rainbands.Lightning mainly occurred to the left （rather than ＂right＂ as in previous studies of US cases） of the moving typhoon,indicating a significant spatial asymmetry.The maximum lightning frequency in the tropical cyclone （TC） eyewall region was ahead of that in the whole TC region,and the outbreaks of eyewall lightning might indicate deepening of the cyclone.Stronger lightning in the outer rainbands is found to be associated with stronger updraft,higher concentrations of rain droplets and large ice particles at elevated mixed-phase levels,and the higher and broader convective clouds in the outer rainbands.Due to the contribution of large cloud nuclei,lightning intensity in the outer rainbands has a strong positive correlation with radar reflectivity.The ratio of positive CG lightning in the outer rainbands reached its maximum 1 h prior to occurrence of the maximum typhoon intensity at 2000 Beijing Time （BT） 18 July 2009.During the pre-landfall period （0300 BT 18 July-0050 BT 19 July）,the typhoon gradually weakened,but strong lightning still appeared.After the typhoon made landfall at 0050 BT 19 July,CG lightning density rapidly decreased,but the ratio of positive lightning increased.Notably,after the landfall of the outer rainbands at 2325 BT 18 July （approximately 1.5 h prior to the landfall of the TC）,significantly higher ice particle density derived from the TRMM data was observed in the outer rainbands,which,together with strengthened convection resulted from the local surface roughness effect,might have caused the enhanced lightning in the outer rainbands around the landfall of Molave.     

Characteristics,and similarities and differences of climate change in major high mountains in the world-comprehensive interpretation of IPCC AR6 WGI report and SROCC北大核心CSCD

IPCC SROCC和AR6对高山区气候变化的评估表明,近期全球山地增暖速率提高,1980年代以来亚洲高山区增暖速率明显高于全球平均和其他高山区同期水平。各山地增暖普遍具有海拔依赖性,但机制复杂且区域差异大,除落基山脉未来气温增幅随海拔降低外,其余山地均随海拔有不同程度的升高。全球山地年降水在过去几十年没有明显趋势;预计未来北半球许多山地年降水将增加5%~20%,但极端降水变化的区域和季节差异较大,其中青藏高原喜马拉雅山脉极端降水频次和强度都将增大。山地年最大雪水当量的减少在固-液态降水转化的海拔高度带更强,未来山地降雪和积雪变化不仅与排放情景有关,而且与海拔高度密切相关。2010—2019年全球山地冰川物质亏损较有观测记录以来的任何一个10年都多,亚洲高山区虽然冰川物质亏损速率较小,但每年亏损的冰量在全球四大高山区中仅次于安第斯山脉南段。预计山地冰川将持续退缩数十年或数百年,未来亚洲高山区冰川退缩对海平面上升的贡献将居全球四大高山区之首。山地多年冻土温度升高、厚度减薄,预计未来多年冻土将加速退化,即使在低温室气体排放情景下,21世纪末青藏高原多年冻土面积预计也将减少13.4%~27.7%。从评估的完整性和信度水平来看,山地观测和研究仍存在巨大差距。     

The impact of AIRS atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles on hurricane forecasts: Ike (2008) and Irene (2011)

Atmospheric Infra Red Sounder(AIRS) measurements are a valuable supplement to current observational data, especially over the oceans where conventional data are sparse. In this study, two types of AIRS-retrieved temperature and moisture profiles, the AIRS Science Team product(Sci Sup) and the single field-of-view(SFOV) research product, were evaluated with European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts(ECMWF) analysis data over the Atlantic Ocean during Hurricane Ike(2008) and Hurricane Irene(2011). The evaluation results showed that both types of AIRS profiles agreed well with the ECMWF analysis, especially between 200 h Pa and 700 h Pa. The average standard deviation of both temperature profiles was approximately 1 K under 200 h Pa, where the mean AIRS temperature profile from the AIRS Sci Sup retrievals was slightly colder than that from the AIRS SFOV retrievals. The mean Sci Sup moisture profile was slightly drier than that from the SFOV in the mid troposphere. A series of data assimilation and forecast experiments was then conducted with the Advanced Research version of the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model and its three-dimensional variational(3DVAR) data assimilation system for hurricanes Ike and Irene. The results showed an improvement in the hurricane track due to the assimilation of AIRS clear-sky temperature profiles in the hurricane environment. In terms of total precipitable water and rainfall forecasts, the hurricane moisture environment was found to be affected by the AIRS sounding assimilation.Meanwhile, improving hurricane intensity forecasts through assimilating AIRS profiles remains a challenge for further study.     

积雪分布及其对中国气候影响的研究进展

对北半球不同地区的积雪分布状况、积雪异常影响中国气候的事实以及影响机理等问题的研究成果进行了较系统的回顾与总结。青藏高原、蒙古高原、欧洲阿尔卑斯山脉及北美中西部是北半球积雪分布的关键区,其中青藏高原是北半球积雪异常变化最强烈的区域。中国积雪分布范围广泛,其中新疆、东北和青藏高原是3个大值区。总体来看,北半球积雪有减少的趋势,而中国积雪却有弱的增加趋势。冬、春季高原积雪与欧亚积雪对中国夏季降水的影响是相反的。积雪影响中国气候的机理解释为：冬季积雪反照率效应起主要作用,春夏季积雪水文效应起主要作用。积雪被视为中国短期气候预测的一个重要物理因子,继续加强该领域的研究对于提高中国短期气候预测的准确率将有重要意义。     

2019年7月3日辽宁开原伴随EF4级强龙卷的超级单体风暴分析

综合利用多普勒雷达、地面自动气象站以及风廓线等观测资料和ERA5再分析资料,对2019年7月3日发生于辽宁开原的超级单体风暴伴随EF4级强龙卷环境条件、多普勒雷达回波特征和形成机理进行详细分析。结果表明:本次过程发生于低层暖湿高层冷干强的热力不稳定环境条件下,在地面干线汇合流场形成地面辐合线附近触发湿对流并发展为伴有龙卷的超级单体风暴。龙卷发生于低层钩状回波附近,多普勒雷达上呈现经典超级单体风暴雷达回波特征,低层强的垂直风切变将水平涡度转化为对流风暴中垂直涡度,强上升运动使得顺流涡度倾斜拉伸,从而龙卷发生前17 min在多普勒雷达2.4°仰角首先出现中气旋结构,随后风暴向南移动过程中,风暴的后侧下沉气流(RFD)将中低层的涡度“压低”致使龙卷接地,因此龙卷发生后1 min在0.5°仰角也出现强中气旋并有类龙卷涡旋特征(TVS),中气旋最强时的旋转速度达到28 m·s^(-1)(强中气旋标准),因此本次龙卷符合“自上而下”I型龙卷特征。由于环境干燥空气夹卷造成水滴强烈蒸发和冷却,使得地面出现了1 h降温达10℃的强冷池,过强的冷池可能在促使龙卷消亡过程中起到关键作用,致使龙卷持续了约30 min后消亡。     

“圣帕”与“桑美”台风成功决策服务对比分析

从台风影响长沙前的气候背景、预报服务背景、预报依据结论、决策服务及效果等方面分析了"圣帕""桑美"影响期间的决策服务情况.结论表明:两个台风影响前气候背景不同,但预报服务背景相似;对长沙造成的影响、决策气象服务的重点不同;把握好当前的气候背景与预报服务背景,做好做准台风预报,是台风决策服务的关键.     

中国冰冻圈变化的适应研究：进展与展望

冰冻圈变化的适应研究是冰冻圈科学领域的新兴研究方向,是当今自然科学与社会科学交叉融合跨学科集成研究的典型代表。起步于2007年的中国冰冻圈变化适应研究,经历了早期的探索,研究重点由评价脆弱性发展为量化冰冻圈变化的影响,形成以影响/风险—脆弱性—适应全链条的完善的研究体系,研究方法突破传统的指标体系赋权法的不足,初步实现了定量化,有机结合影响/风险、脆弱性、适应三方面的研究结果,使冰冻圈变化的适应措施由偏重宏观性、普适性开始转向更有针对性。未来中国冰冻圈变化的适应研究应拓展、完善和深化现有的理论体系,构建冰冻圈与社会经济耦合模型,科学量化冰冻圈全要素变化的影响,建立不同利益相关者与科学家共同参与的研究新模式,科学有效应对与适应冰冻圈变化及其影响。     

2019年西北太平洋和南海台风活动概述

应用中央气象台业务实时资料和中国气象局台风最佳路径资料对2019年发生在西北太平洋和南海的台风活动主要特征以及主要影响我国的台风路径、强度及风雨情况进行了统计分析和论述。2019年西北太平洋和南海共有29个台风生成,较多年平均值偏多2个;秋季台风异常活跃,生成数较常年明显偏多;台风整体强度偏弱,超强台风数与常年持平;有5个台风登陆我国,较多年平均值略偏少;登陆台风平均强度较多年平均值明显偏弱,但台风“利奇马”登陆强度强、风雨影响重。     

A political ecology of maladaptation: Insights from a Gramscian theory of the State

This article analyzes a political process in the aftermath of a disaster and explains why and how it led to maladaptation. Grounding Gramsci’s theory of the State on a case of post-disaster response to a fatal mudslide in the city of Sarno in Italy, this research argues that, under certain conditions, civil society and the ruling classes may coalesce to produce policies that are maladaptive. We unpack the mechanisms through which consent was reproduced in Sarno, and show how the claims of civil society were articulated and fused with the hegemonic goals of capital circulation and economic growth, reaffirming a view of government as only a provider of safety. A Gramscian treatment of the State as a process, and not as a thing, highlights that the main barrier to adaptation is not the lack of techno-managerial solutions. It is the lack of political struggle around the social reconfiguration of the logic and functions of the State.     

Regulating CO2 in electricity markets: sources or consumers?

The regulation of greenhouse gas emissions from the electricity sector within a cap-and-trade system poses significant policy questions on where to locate the point of compliance. Electricity markets often cross national or other regulatory boundaries, so that electricity generated within the boundary may comply with expectations but imported electricity may not. The question addressed in this article is where to locate the point of compliance in the electricity sector—where in the supply chain linking fuel suppliers to generators to the transmission system to retail load-serving entities should the obligation for measurement and compliance be placed? This problem is examined in the specific context of California's legislative requirements and particular energy markets, with the implications of the different policy options explored. The conclusion offered is that one particular approach to regulating the electricity sector—the ‘first-seller approach’—would be best for California. The alternative ‘load-based approach’ has had a head start in the policy process but would undermine an economy-wide market-based emissions trading programme.