Benchmarking the mesoscale variability in global ocean eddy-permitting numerical systems

The role of data assimilation procedures on representing ocean mesoscale variability is assessed by applying eddy statistics to a state-of-the-art global ocean reanalysis (C-GLORS), a free global ocean simulation (performed with the NEMO system) and an observation-based dataset (ARMOR3D) used as an independent benchmark. Numerical results are computed on a 1/4 ^° horizontal grid (ORCA025) and share the same resolution with ARMOR3D dataset. This “eddy-permitting” resolution is sufficient to allow ocean eddies to form. Further to assessing the eddy statistics from three different datasets, a global three-dimensional eddy detection system is implemented in order to bypass the need of regional-dependent definition of thresholds, typical of commonly adopted eddy detection algorithms. It thus provides full three-dimensional eddy statistics segmenting vertical profiles from local rotational velocities. This criterion is crucial for discerning real eddies from transient surface noise that inevitably affects any two-dimensional algorithm. Data assimilation enhances and corrects mesoscale variability on a wide range of features that cannot be well reproduced otherwise. The free simulation fairly reproduces eddies emerging from western boundary currents and deep baroclinic instabilities, while underestimates shallower vortexes that populate the full basin. The ocean reanalysis recovers most of the missing turbulence, shown by satellite products , that is not generated by the model itself and consistently projects surface variability deep into the water column. The comparison with the statistically reconstructed vertical profiles from ARMOR3D show that ocean data assimilation is able to embed variability into the model dynamics, constraining eddies with in situ and altimetry observation and generating them consistently with local environment.     

A numerical study of the circulation and monthly-to-seasonal variability in the Caribbean Sea: the role of Caribbean eddies

This study examines the circulation and associated monthly-to-seasonal variability in the Caribbean Sea using a regional ocean circulation model. The model domain covers the region between 99.0 and 54.0°W and between 8.0 and 30.3°N, with a horizontal resolution of 1/6°. The ocean circulation model is driven by 6-hourly atmospheric reanalysis data from the National Center for Environmental Prediction and boundary forcing extracted from 5-day global ocean reanalysis data produced by Smith et al. (Mercator Newsletter 36:39–49, 2010), and integrated for 7 years. A comparison of model results with observations demonstrates that the regional ocean circulation model has skill in simulating circulation and associated variability in the study region. Analysis of the model results, as well as a companion model run that uses steady annual mean forcing, illustrates the role of Caribbean eddies for driving monthly-to-seasonal circulation variability in the model. It is found that vertically integrated transport between Nicaragua and Jamaica is influenced by the interaction between the density perturbations associated with Caribbean eddies and the Nicaraguan Ridge. The impact of Caribbean eddies squeezing through the Yucatan Channel is also discussed.     

An assessment of the impact of surface currents on wave modeling in the Southern Ocean

This paper presents an assessment of the impact of the ocean circulation on modeled wave fields in the Southern Ocean, where a systematic positive bias of the modeled wave height against altimetry data has been reported. The inclusion of ocean currents in the wave model considerably reduces the positive bias of the simulated wave height for high southern latitudes. The decrease of wave energy in the presence of currents is almost exclusively related to the reduction of the relative wind, caused by an overall co-flowing current field associated with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Improvements of the model results are also found for the peak period and the mean period against a long-term moored buoy. At the mooring location, the effect of currents is greater for larger and longer waves, suggesting remotely generated swells are more influenced by the currents than local waves. However, an additional qualitative analysis using high-resolution currents in a finer grid nested to the global coarser grid shows that typical resolution of global hydrodynamic reanalysis is not sufficient to resolve mesoscale eddies, and as a consequence, the simulation of mesoscale wave patterns can be compromised. The results are also discussed in terms of the accuracy of forcing fields.     

Observed impact of mesoscale circulation on oceanic response to Typhoon Man-Yi (2007)

The oceanic response to a typhoon, where mesoscale ocean circulations co-exist, was investigated by analyzing the independent observations of profiling floats data at three different locations, satellite altimetry data near the eye of Typhoon Man-Yi (2007) before and after its passage, and synthetic aperture radar data taken during the typhoon’s passage. In spite of the nearly symmetric wind pattern around the eye, the distribution of mesoscale eddies had a major impact on the surface currents and mixed layer (ML) depths. As a result, the entrainment of the water below the ML into the ML was affected by the mesoscale circulation and became asymmetric, which accounted for most of the changes observed in the temperature profiles. Changes in the isotherms were driven primarily by the westward propagation of the mesoscale pattern rather than by the typhoon-induced shoaling. The typhoon-induced shoaling could have played a significant role in the generation of high-frequency (e.g., near-inertial) oscillations and/or sub-mesoscale structures. Although a similar or even greater energy flux was observed at the surface, the entrainment within the anticyclonic circulation was weaker than that within the cyclonic circulation and at the edge of the anticyclonic circulation because of the thick pre-existing ML. A strong ocean response to Typhoon Man-Yi (2007) within a cyclonic circulation or at the edge of an anticyclonic circulation, rather than within an anticyclonic eddy, has implications for the role of mesoscale ocean circulations in better understanding and forecasting the typhoon intensity.     

A three-dimensional surface wave–ocean circulation coupled model and its initial testing

A theoretical framework to include the influences of nonbreaking surface waves in ocean general circulation models is established based on Reynolds stresses and fluxes terms derived from surface wave-induced fluctuation. An expression for the wave-induced viscosity and diffusivity as a function of the wave number spectrum is derived for infinite and finite water depths; this derivation allows the coupling of ocean circulation models with a wave number spectrum numerical model. In the case of monochromatic surface wave, the wave-induced viscosity and diffusivity are functions of the Stokes drift. The influence of the wave-induced mixing scheme on global ocean circulation models was tested with the Princeton Ocean Model, indicating significant improvement in upper ocean thermal structure and mixed layer depth compared with mixing obtained by the Mellor–Yamada scheme without the wave influence. For example, the model–observation correlation coefficient of the upper 100-m temperature along 35° N increases from 0.68 without wave influence to 0.93 with wave influence. The wave-induced Reynolds stress can reach up to about 5% of the wind stress in high latitudes, and drive 2–3 Sv transport in the global ocean in the form of mesoscale eddies with diameter of 500–1,000 km. The surface wave-induced mixing is more pronounced in middle and high latitudes during the summer in the Northern Hemisphere and in middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.     

Storm surge simulation along the U.S. East and Gulf Coasts using a multi-scale numerical model approach

The effectiveness of simulating surge inundation using the Eulerian–Lagrangian circulation (ELCIRC) model over multi-scale unstructured grids was examined in this study. The large domain model grid encompasses the western North Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea to appropriately account for remote and resonance effects during hurricane events and simplify the specification of the open boundary condition. The U.S. East and Gulf Coasts were divided into 12 overlapping basins with fine-resolution (up to 30 × 30 m) grids to model overland surge flooding. These overlapping basins have different fine-resolution grids near the coastal region, but have an identical coarse-resolution grid in the offshore region within the large model domain. Thus, the storm surge prediction can be conducted without reducing computation efficiency by executing multiple model runs with local fine-resolution grids where potential hurricane landfalls may occur. The capability of the multi-scale approach was examined by simulating storm surge caused by Hurricanes Andrew (1992) and Isabel (2003) along the South Florida coast and in the Chesapeake Bay. Comparisons between simulated and observed results suggest that multi-scale models proficiently simulated storm surges in the Biscayne Bay and the Chesapeake Bay during two hurricanes. A series of sensitivity tests demonstrated that the simulation of surge flooding was improved when LiDAR topographic data and special bottom drag coefficient values for mangrove forests were employed. The tests also showed that appropriate representation of linear hydrologic features is important for computing surge inundation in an urban area.     

High-frequency and meso-scale winter sea-ice variability in the Southern Ocean in a high-resolution global ocean model

This study is on high-frequency temporal variability (HFV) and meso-scale spatial variability (MSV) of winter sea-ice drift in the Southern Ocean simulated with a global high-resolution (0.1°) sea ice-ocean model. Hourly model output is used to distinguish MSV characteristics via patterns of mean kinetic energy (MKE) and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) of ice drift, surface currents, and wind stress, and HFV characteristics via time series of raw variables and correlations. We find that (1) along the ice edge, the MSV of ice drift coincides with that of surface currents, in particular such due to ocean eddies; (2) along the coast, the MKE of ice drift is substantially larger than its TKE and coincides with the MKE of wind stress; (3) in the interior of the ice pack, the TKE of ice drift is larger than its MKE, mostly following the TKE pattern of wind stress; (4) the HFV of ice drift is dominated by weather events, and, in the absence of tidal currents, locally and to a much smaller degree by inertial oscillations; (5) along the ice edge, the curl of the ice drift is highly correlated with that of surface currents, mostly reflecting the impact of ocean eddies. Where ocean eddies occur and the ice is relatively thin, ice velocity is characterized by enhanced relative vorticity, largely matching that of surface currents. Along the ice edge, ocean eddies produce distinct ice filaments, the realism of which is largely confirmed by high-resolution satellite passive-microwave data.     

A numerical study of the dynamics of the wave-driven circulation within a fringing reef system

The circulation driven by wave breaking, tides and winds within a fringing coral reef system (Ningaloo Reef) in Western Australia was investigated using the ocean circulation model ROMS two-way coupled to the wave model SWAN. Currents within the system were dominantly forced by wave breaking, with flow driven over the shallow reefs and towards the lagoon, which returned to the ocean through channels in the reef. Hindcast model simulations were compared against an extensive field dataset, revealing that the coupled wave–circulation model could accurately predict the waves and currents throughout this morphologically complex reef–lagoon system. A detailed momentum budget analysis showed that, over the reef, a dominant cross-shore balance was established between radiation stress gradients and a pressure (mean water level) gradient (similar to a beach). Within the lagoon, alongshore currents were primarily balanced by alongshore gradients in wave setup, which drove flow towards (and ultimately out) the channels. The importance of these wave-driven currents to Ningaloo Reef was quantified over a full seasonal cycle, during periods when wave and wind conditions significantly differed. These results showed that wave breaking still overwhelmingly dominated the circulation and flushing of Ningaloo Reef throughout the year, with winds playing an insignificant role.     

Hydrodynamic modelling of mesoscale eddies in the Black Sea

A three dimensional structure of mesoscale circulation in the Black Sea is simulated using the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory Coastal Ocean Modelling System. A number of sensitivity tests reveal the response of the model to changes in the horizontal resolution, time steps, and diffusion coefficients. Three numerical grids are examined with x-fine (3.2 km), fine (6.7 km) and coarse (25 km) resolution. It is found that the coarse grid significantly overestimates the energy of the currents and is not adequate even for the study of basin-scale circulation. The x-fine grid, on the other hand, does not give significant advantages compared to the fine grid, and the latter is used for the bulk of simulations. The most adequate parameters are chosen from the sensitivity study and used to model both the basin-scale circulation and day-to-day variability of mesoscale currents for the months of May and June of 2000. The model is forced with actual wind data every 6 h and monthly climatic data for evaporation, precipitation, heat fluxes and river run-off. The results of the fine grid model are compared favourably against the satellite imagery. The model adequately reproduces the general circulation and many mesoscale features including cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies, jets and filaments in different parts of the Black Sea. The model gives a realistic geographical distribution and parameters of mesoscale currents, such as size, shape and evolution of the eddies.     

A two-way nested-grid ocean-circulation model for the Meso-American Barrier Reef System

A two-way nested-grid ocean-circulation model is developed for the Meso-American Barrier Reef System (MBRS), using a newly developed two-way interactive nesting technique. The unique feature of this new nesting technique is its use of the semi-prognostic method (Sheng et al. 2001) to exchange information between different grids through the model momentum equations. The nested-grid model for the MBRS has a fine-resolution inner model embedded in a coarse-resolution outer model. The outer model is the western Caribbean Sea model developed by Sheng and Tang (2003), with a horizontal resolution of roughly 19 km. The inner model domain covers the northwest Caribbean Sea (NWCS) between 79°W and 89°W and between 15.5°N and 22°N, with a horizontal resolution of roughly 6 km. The nested-grid ocean model is initialized with the January mean temperature and salinity and forced by the monthly mean COADS (comprehensive ocean-atmosphere data set) wind stress and surface heat flux. The model sea-surface salinity is restored to the monthly mean climatology. The nested-grid model is integrated for 2 years and the second-year model results are presented in this paper. The model-calculated annual-mean near-surface currents over the NWCS agree reasonably well with the time-mean near-surface currents inferred by Fratantoni (2001) from trajectories of the satellite-tracked 15-m drogued drifters in the 1990s. The two-way nested model is also used to quantify the role of local wind stress, local density gradients and boundary forcings of the outer model in driving the annual-mean circulation in the region.Responsible Editor: Phil Dyke     

Modeling and observations of high-frequency flow variability and internal waves at a Caribbean reef spawning aggregation site

The characteristics and forcing mechanisms of high-frequency flow variations (periods of minutes to days) were investigated near Gladden Spit, a reef promontory off the coast of Belize. Direct field observations and a high-resolution (50-m grid size) numerical ocean model are used to describe the flow variations that impact the initial dispersion of eggs and larvae from this site, which serves as a spawning aggregation site for many species of reef fishes. Idealized sensitivity model experiments isolate the role of various processes, such as internal waves, wind, tides, and large-scale flow variations. The acute horizontal curvature and steep topography of the reef intensify the flow, create small-scale convergence and divergence zones, and excite high-frequency oscillations and internal waves. Although the tides in this area are relatively small (∼10-cm amplitude), the model simulations show that tides can excite significant high-frequency flow variations near the reef, which suggests that the preference of fish to aggregate and spawn in the days following the time of full moon may not be coincidental. Even small variations in remote flows (2–5 cm s⁻¹) due to say, meso-scale eddies, are enough to excite near-reef oscillations. Model simulations and the observations further suggest that the spawning site at the tip of the reef provides initial strong dispersion for eggs, but then the combined influence of the along-isobath flow and the westward wind will transport the eggs and larvae downstream of Gladden Spit toward less turbulent region, which may contribute to enhanced larval survival.     

Existence of eddies at crossroad of the Indonesian seas

An eddy-resolving Indo-Pacific ocean circulation model was applied to highlight the behavior of eddies throughout the Indonesian seas. The complexity of the topography and coastline at the entrance of the Makassar Strait induce an eddy-type throughflow, instead of a straightforward flow. A sill and a narrow passage in the Makassar strait creates a barrier and impedes the continuation of eddies from the Pacific ocean, but the existence of a steep deep basin (>500 m depth) between the Java and Flores seas indicates a possible area for eddies. Based on our numerical results, we described the presence of a unique eddy structure north of Lombok Island, which we designated the “Lombok Eddy” and verified it by performing a drifter release field experiment and reviewing monthly mean climatology data from the World Ocean Atlas 2001 and XBT PX2 track data. NCEP/NCAR reanalysis, satellite observation data, and mixed layer depth analysis were also used to confirm these processes. By analyzing numerical simulation results and available temperature datasets, two additional eddies were found. All eddies form primarily due to eastward local winds correlated with seasonal monsoon winds during the austral summer. These eddies vary synchronously at an interannual time scale. Together, they are referred to as the Lombok Eddy Train (LET), which affects the surface layer down to a depth of 60 m, and the intensity of the eddy system is strongly affected by mixed layer depth variability from December to February.     

On the variability of the flow along the Meso-American Barrier Reef system: a numerical model study of the influence of the Caribbean current and eddies

A high resolution (3–8 km grid), 3D numerical ocean model of the West Caribbean Sea (WCS) is used to investigate the variability and the forcing of flows near the Meso-American Barrier Reef System (MBRS) which runs along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras. Mesoscale variations in velocity and temperature along the reef were found in seasonal model simulations and in observations; these variations are associated with meandering of the Caribbean current (CC) and the propagation of Caribbean eddies. Diagnostic calculations and a simple assimilation technique are combined to infer the dynamically adjusted flow associated with particular eddies. The results demonstrate that when a cyclonic eddy (negative sea surface height anomaly (SSHA)) is found near the MBRS the CC shifts offshore, the cyclonic circulation in the Gulf of Honduras (GOH) intensifies, and a strong southward flow results along the reef. However, when an anticyclonic eddy (positive SSHA) is found near the reef, the CC moves onshore and the flow is predominantly westward across the reef. The model results help to explain how drifters are able to propagate in a direction opposite to the mean circulation when eddies cause a reversal of the coastal circulation. The effect of including the Meso-American Lagoon west of the Belize Reef in the model topography was also investigated, to show the importance of having accurate coastal topography in determining the variations of transports across the MBRS. The variations found in transports across the MBRS (on seasonal and mesoscale time scales) may have important consequences for biological activities along the reef such as spawning aggregations; better understanding the nature of these variations will help ongoing efforts in coral reef conservation and maintaining the health of the ecosystem in the region.     

The mesoscale eddies and Kuroshio transport in the western North Pacific east of Taiwan from 8-year (2003–2010) model reanalysis

The relationship between the Kuroshio volume transport east of Taiwan (~24°N) and the impinging mesoscale eddies is investigated using 8-year reanalysis of a primitive equation ocean model that assimilates satellite altimetry and SST data. The mean and fluctuations of the model Kuroshio transport agree well with the available observations. Analysis of model dynamic heights and velocity fields reveals three dominant eddy modes. The first mode describes a large eddy of ~500 km in diameter, centered at ~22° N. The second mode describes a pair of the north–south counter-rotating eddies of?~?400 km in diameter each, centered at 23° and 20° N, respectively. The third mode describes a pair of the east–west counter-rotating eddies of?~?300 km in diameter each, centered at 21° N. The associated velocity fields indicate eddies extending to 600–700 m in depth with vertical shears concentrated in the upper 400 m. All three modes and the model Kuroshio transport have similar dominant timescales of 70–150 days and generally are coherent. The decreased Kuroshio volume transports typically are associated with the impinging cyclonic eddies and the increased transports with the anticyclonic eddies. Selected drifter trajectories are presented to illustrate the three eddy modes and their correspondence with the varying Kuroshio transports.     

Effects of cyclonic mesoscale eddies on the marine ecosystem in the Kuroshio Extension region using an eddy-resolving coupled physical-biological model

Effects of mesoscale eddies on the marine ecosystem in the Kuroshio Extension (KE) region are investigated using an eddy-resolving coupled physical-biological model. The model captures the seasonal and intra-seasonal variability of chlorophyll distribution associated with the mesoscale eddies, front variability, Kuroshio meanders, and upwelling. The model also reproduces the observed interannual variability of sea surface height anomaly (SSHA) in the KE region along a zonal band of 32–34°N from 2002 to 2006. The distribution of high surface chlorophyll corresponds to low SSHA. Cyclonic eddies are found to detach from the KE jet near 150°E and 158°E and propagate westward. The westward propagating cyclonic eddies lift the nutrient-rich thermocline into the euphotic zone and maintain high levels of chlorophyll in summer. In the subsurface layer, the pattern in chlorophyll is influenced by both lateral and vertical advection. In winter, convection inside the eddy entrains high levels of nutrients into the mixed layer, increasing production, and resulting in high chlorophyll concentration throughout the surface mixed layer. There is significant interannual variability in both the cyclonic eddy activity and the surface phytoplankton bloom south of the KE jet, although whether or not there is a causal link is unclear.     

Island-enhanced cooling mechanism in typhoon events revealed by field observations and numerical simulations for a coral reef area,Sekisei Lagoon,Japan

While widely known for their destructive power, typhoon events can also bring benefit to coral reef ecosystems through typhoon-induced cooling which can mitigate against thermally stressful conditions causing coral bleaching. Sensor deployments in Sekisei Lagoon, Japan’s largest coral reef area, during the summer months of 2013, 2014, and 2015 were able to capture local hydrodynamic features of numerous typhoon passages. In particular, typhoons 2015-13 and 2015-15 featured steep drops in near-bottom temperature of 5 °C or more in the north and south sides of Sekisei Lagoon, respectively, indicating local cooling patterns which appeared to depend on the track and intensity of the passing typhoon. This was further investigated using Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) numerical simulations conducted for the summer of 2015. The modeling results showed a cooling trend to the north of the Yaeyama Islands during the passage of typhoon 2015-13, and a cooling trend that moved clockwise from north to south of the islands during the passage of typhoon 2015-15. These local cooling events may have been initiated by the Yaeyama Islands acting as an obstacle to a strong typhoon-generated flow which was modulated and led to prominent cooling of waters on the leeward sides. These lower temperature waters from offshore may then be transported to the shallower inner parts of the lagoon area, which may partly be due to density-driven currents generated by the offshore-inner area temperature difference.     

A numerical study of island wakes in the Southern California Bight

With the existence of eight substantial islands in the Southern California Bight, the oceanic circulation is significantly affected by island wakes. In this paper a high-resolution numerical model (on a 1 km grid), forced by a high-resolution wind (2 km), is used to study the wakes. Island wakes arise due both to currents moving past islands and to wind wakes that force lee currents in response. A comparison between simulations with and without islands shows the surface enstrophy (i.e., area-integrated square of the vertical component of vorticity at the surface) decreases substantially when the islands in the oceanic model are removed, and the enstrophy decrease mainly takes place in the areas around the islands. Three cases of wake formation and evolution are analyzed for the Channel Islands, San Nicolas Island, and Santa Catalina Island. When flows squeeze through gaps between the Channel Islands, current shears arise, and the bottom drag makes a significant contribution to the vorticity generation. Downstream the vorticity rolls up into submesoscale eddies. When the California Current passes San Nicolas Island from the northwest, a relatively strong flow forms over the shelf break on the northeastern coast and gives rise to a locally large bottom stress that generates anticyclonic vorticity, while on the southwestern side, with an adverse flow pushing the main wake current away from the island, positive vorticity has been generated and a cyclonic eddy detaches into the wake. When the northward Southern California Countercurrent passes the irregular shape of Santa Catalina Island, cyclonic eddies form on the southeastern coast of the island, due primarily to lateral stress rather than bottom stress; they remain coherent as they detach and propagate downstream, and thus they are plausible candidates for the submesoscale “spirals on the sea” seen in many satellite images. Finally, the oceanic response to wind wakes is analyzed in a spin-up experiment with a time-invariant wind that exhibits strips of both positive and negative curl in the island lee. Corresponding vorticity strips in the ocean develop through the mechanism of Ekman pumping.     

Influence of tide and waves on water renewal in Óbidos Lagoon, Portugal

The role of oceanic tide, wind stress, freshwater river inflows, and waves in the long-term circulation and residence time in óbidos Lagoon is investigated using a sensitivity analysis carried out by means of a two-dimensional model. MOHID modeling system coupled to Steady-State Spectral Wave model for simulate óbidos Lagoon circulation were implemented. For residence time calculus, a Lagrangian transport model was used. Tidal forcing is shown to be the dominant forcing, although storm waves must be considered to simulate accurately the long-term circulation. Tidal forcing enhances a spatial distribution in water residence time. Renewal time scales varies from values of 2 days in the near-ocean areas and 3 weeks in the inner areas. Freshwater river inflows decrease the residence time, while waves increase. In heavy rain periods, the water residence time decreases by about 40% in the upper lagoon. When wave forcing is considered, the residence time increases between 10% and 50% depending on lagoon area. The increase in residence time is explained by the sea level rise within lagoon (~1 m above average lagoon sea level) during storm wave periods. Average residence time is 16 days for tidal forcing, 9 days when the rivers are included (wet period), and 18 days when the waves are considered.     

Fine grain sediment transport and deposition in the Patos Lagoon–Cassino beach sedimentary system

Extensive mud deposits superimposed on the predominantly sandy inner continental shelf adjacent to the Patos Lagoon estuary, indicates that the Lagoon is a potential source of fine sediments to the coastal sedimentary system. The lagoon is large and shallow, and the water movement is mainly controlled by wind-driven set-up and set-down. The mean river inflow is around 2000 m³ s⁻¹, although peak flow rates exceeding 20,000 m³ s⁻¹ have been observed during El Niño periods. Though the tidal elevations are small, tidal velocities in the lagoon's inlet can be significant due to the large extension of the backwaters. Moreover, significant exchange flows can be generated between the estuary and coastal area due to barotropic pressure gradients established as a function of wind and freshwater discharge. The predominant net flow is seawards, but opposite near-bed flows due to pronounced vertical salinity stratification can also be observed. The coastal area is characterized by small tidal effects, large scale ocean circulation, wind-induced residual flows and wave-driven currents, where the waves originate from swell or are locally generated.     

On the dynamics of strait flows: an ocean model study of the Aleutian passages and the Bering Strait

A high-resolution numerical ocean circulation model of the Bering Sea (BS) is used to study the natural variability of the BS straits. Three distinct categories of strait dynamics have been identified: (1) Shallow passages such as the Bering Strait and the Unimak Passage have northward, near barotropic flow with periodic pulses of larger transports; (2) wide passages such as Near Straits, Amukta Pass, and Buldir Pass have complex flow patterns driven by the passage of mesoscale eddies across the strait; and (3) deep passages such as Amchitka Pass and Kamchatka Strait have persistent deep return flows opposite in direction to major surface currents; the deep flows persist independent of the local wind. Empirical orthogonal function analyses reveal the spatial structure and the temporal variability of strait flows and demonstrate how mesoscale variations in the Aleutian passages influence the Bering Strait flow toward the Arctic Ocean. The study suggests a general relation between the barotropic and baroclinic Rossby radii of deformations in each strait, and the level of flow variability through the strait, independent of geographical location. The mesoscale variability in the BS seems to originate from two different sources: a remote origin from variability in the Alaskan Stream that enters the BS through the Aleutian passages and a local origin from the interaction of currents with the Bowers Ridge in the Aleutian Basin. Comparisons between the flow in the Aleutian passages and flow in other straits, such as the Yucatan Channel and the Faroe Bank Channel, suggest some universal topographically induced dynamics in strait flows.