红藻石和蓝藻石概念及分类归属的综述和修订

在分析和总结前人对红藻石和蓝藻石研究成果基础上,结合岩石薄片显微镜下观察实例,发现在以往碳酸盐岩颗粒分类中没有红藻石和蓝藻石的合适位置。鉴于红藻石重要的成因意义和造礁作用,有必要明确红藻石的概念和归属。珊瑚藻本身极易钙化,经生物矿化作用最终保存下来的珊瑚藻屑一直放在生物碎屑中,而红藻石是由非固着的珊瑚藻构成的钙质独立结核,因此也可以被划分到生物碎屑中。蓝藻石作为蓝细菌钙化作用的产物,同时鉴于蓝藻石的广泛存在,把钙化蓝细菌形成的核形石命名为蓝藻石,这一重要概念从提出到现在一直被使用。然而蓝绿藻概念已变更为蓝细菌,蓝藻石的形成与藻类无关,显然将其称作蓝菌石更加确切。因此,应将红藻石和蓝藻石分别归为生物碎屑和核形石当中,并用新的术语蓝菌石替代蓝藻石。其意义在于使红藻石和蓝藻石的概念及归属更为规范,并为碳酸盐岩颗粒的深入研究提供有益线索。     

Gallium and germanium in the metal and silicates of L- and LL-chondrites

Concentrations of Ga and Ge in the metal of 31 L-, 8 LL- and 2 H-chondrites, and in the silicates of 12 L- and LL-chondrites have been determined by spectrophotometric methods. The ranges of Ga contents in the metal of L- and LL-chondrites are 1.1–36.9 ppm and 1.0–34.1 ppm, respectively. The Ge content in the metal is positively correlated with Ga and ranges from 89.1–160 ppm, and 126–308 ppm for L- and LL-chondrites, respectively. The Ga content in the silicates of L-chondrites varies from 4.0 to 8.9 ppm.The Ga and Ge contents in the metal are clearly lower in unequilibrated than in equilibrated L- and LL-group chondrites. Unequilibrated (type 3 and 4) and equilibrated (type 5 and 6) chondrites are well separated in the plots of Ga vs Ge in the metal and the L- and LL-groups are also well resolved. The Ga and Ge in the metal are well correlated with petrologic grade. This suggests that Ga and Ge variations in the metal are related to thermal metamorphism. There is evidence of an enrichment of Ga in the metal due to shock-reheating.     

铀钍的地球化学及对地壳演化和生物进化的影响

本文论述了在含挥发份和贫挥发份条件下Ｕ、Ｔｈ的迁移行为及其对地球和行星演化的影响,并阐述了造成地球独特地质演化历史的原因。提出了Ｕ、Ｔｈ在地球中的迁移模式以及该模式对地壳形成、演化的控制作用和对生物发展演化的可能影响。     

Polyculture and monoculture: Contrast and analysis

Although polyculture or interplanting is a dominant production method used by traditional cultivators in the tropics, there has been increasing emphasis on monoculture in agricultural development planning. Analysis of the economic and ecological consequences of these two cropping alternatives in a densely-populated area of eastern Nigeria suggests that a focus on monoculture as a panacea for increasing productivity and food supply is questionable. Polyculture is held to be ecologically superior to monoculture and, in the field area examined, economically more productive as well. Thus further investigation of polycultural approaches to agricultural development would appear to be warranted.     

毫米波测云雷达的特点及其研究现状与展望

云在大气的能量分配、辐射传输,尤其是水循环系统中有不可忽视的作用。云探测对云物理、人工影响天气、气候变化和航空航天等领域有重要意义,是大气科学研究的热点之一。尽管目前已经发展了很多种遥感设备对云进行观测(如激光雷达、卫星、云幂仪等),但这些设备无法得到高时空分辨率的云水平和垂直结构,而毫米波雷达是云三维精细结构探测的重要工具。由于毫米波雷达具有更接近小粒子尺度的短波长,因此更适合用来探测弱云,同时毫米波雷达也存在衰减严重的缺点。介绍了毫米波雷达的特点以及其探测小粒子的优势;对比分析了其与新一代多普勒天气雷达、晴空风廓线雷达的差异,得出：毫米波雷达具有高时空分辨率,能够更精确地反映云的垂直和水平结构,比普通天气雷达更适合监测云的变化。概括了国内外毫米波测云雷达的发展现状以及在云物理研究方面的情况,并展望了国内毫米波雷达未来研究的方向。     

Cumulate and Cumulative Granites and Associated Rocks

Abstract. Processes that move crystals relative to melt, that is crystal fractionation, are of major importance in producing variations that are observed within cogenetic suites of granites. In low‐temperature granite suites, crystal fractionation initially involves the progressive separation of crystals residual from partial melting from that partial melt. Once separation of those crystals, or restite, has been completed, further fractionation may occur through the separation of crystals that had precipitated from the melt, the process known as fractional crystallization. High‐temperature granite magmas are largely or completely molten and elements such as Ca, Mg and Fe, and their associated minor elements, are in that case dissolved in the melt. Such magmas, particularly those that are more potassic and hence contain a higher fraction of low temperature melt, may evolve compositionally through fractional crystallization. Cumulate rocks result, comprising a framework of cumulus minerals with interstitial melt. In this process some of the melt is also displaced to form more felsic rocks. Such cumulate rocks may have distinctive chemical compositions, but that is often not the case. Distinctive features include SiC>2 contents near or below 50 % in rocks that are transitional in the field to more felsic granites, very high Cr and Ni, very low K, P, Ba, Rb and Zr, and anomalous abundances of the anorthite components Ca and Al. These rocks may also have positive Eu anomalies. Cumulate rocks do not necessarily have distinctive textures, at least as such features are understood at this time. Fractional crystallization can also involve the movement of precipitated crystals relative to melt. We refer to rocks as cumulative when formed from the fractions in which the abundance of crystals has increased. The production of cumulative granites typically occurs at more felsic melt compositions than is the case for cumulate granites, and this process may have its greatest significance in the fractional crystallization of the felsic haplogranites. Relative to felsic granites of broadly similar compositions lying on a liquid line of descent, cumulative granites contain more Ca, reflecting the addition from elsewhere of plagioclase crystals with solidus compositions. The abundances of Sr and Ba may be high to very high, and sometimes there are positive Eu anomalies. Cumulative I‐type granites may have low abundances of Y and the heavy REE, while the S‐type granites can be very distinctive with anomalously high abundances of Th and the heavy REE resulting from the concentrating of monazite. Generally, but not always, those who propose fractional crystallization as a mechanism for producing compositional variation within a suite of granites do not state whether the rocks in that particular case are thought to lie on a liquid line of descent or are cumulates/cumulative, although it is generally presumed that they were melts. Our experiences in eastern Australia have shown that the mechanism of fractional crystallization was quantitatively not as important during granite evolution as many workers would expect. However, there are some excellent examples of that process, most notably the Boggy Plain Supersuite. Overall in eastern Australia, varying degrees of separation of restite is a much more common mode of crystal fractionation, and that may also be seen to be the case for some other granite provinces if they are examined with that possibility in mind.     

Garnet-peridotite stability and occurrence in crust and mantle

The boundary between the spinel- and garnet-lherzolite mineral facies is strongly curved between 1300° C and 1450° C; below 1200° C it lies almost parallel to the temperature axis of the T-P diagram.Pressure of at least 12 kb is required to stabilise garnet-peridotite on the geothermal gradient and the depth at which the boundary is encountered is not sensitive to variations in the geotherm.Garnet-peridotite is metastable with respect to spinel-peridotite in normal continental crust. Natural occurrences are mantle derived and have either suffered rapid upward transit in diatremes or, in orogenic zones, either they were emplaced after upward tectonic transport through tens of kilometres, or have originated by in situ metamorphism of pre-existing crustal peridotite in an orogenic root downfolded to depths of at least 40 km.     

碳酸盐工厂与浅水碳酸盐岩台地: 研究进展与展望*

碳酸盐岩具有广泛的时空分布,主要为生物成因,而该生物成因属性注定了其与海洋生物、海洋化学条件等密切相关。海相碳酸盐岩沉积相模式对于描述、表征和解释碳酸盐岩地层结构成因具有重要的指导意义。本文回顾了近70年来碳酸盐岩沉积相模式从二维水体能量模型到三维地形模型的发展变化。如何深入分析不同形态特征和内部构成的碳酸盐岩台地的成因机制,解读其相应的地球生物-环境演化信息,是当前和下一步需要努力的方向。为此本文介绍了碳酸盐工厂和碳酸盐岩台地成因方面的研究进展,强调了碳酸盐岩地层的时代特殊性,并以滇黔桂地区为例,从碳酸盐工厂分析的角度剖析了该区二叠纪吴家坪期碳酸盐岩沉积学研究现状,展望了下一步的研究方向,旨在引起同行重新认识生物和海洋环境条件在碳酸盐岩台地演化中的作用,重视全球空间尺度范围内同时代碳酸盐岩的相似性与差异,并从古生态角度入手开展碳酸盐工厂分析,发掘碳酸盐岩台地的生物学和海洋学意义。     

Geoconservation for science and society: challenges and opportunities

Well managed and accessible geological and geomorphological sites are important to both science and society, for research, education, and, in some cases, for recreation. In this viewpoint paper we celebrate achievements in the field of geoconservation over the last 60 years since the first geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest were designated in the UK following the passing of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act in 1949. With a range of new political, social, economic and environmental challenges and opportunities coming to the fore, geoconservation now needs to innovate and adapt in order to sustain and enhance its influence and effectiveness. In advance of the 2011 Geologists’ Association Annual Meeting, Geoconservation for Science and Society: An Agenda for the 21st Century, we give our view on the challenges and opportunities facing geoconservation and the areas in which new approaches and partnerships are required to secure the long-term conservation of our geological and geomorphological heritage.     

Estimating and Optimising Analytical and Sampling Uncertainty in Environmental Investigations: Application and Evaluation

Measurements taken to characterise environmental contamination contain uncertainty, which is generated by both field sampling and chemical analyses. Recently devised techniques have been applied for the first time to estimate this uncertainty in the commercial monitoring and assessment of contaminated land. The uncertainty reduces the reliability of the classification of the land that is made following a site investigation. The possible misclassification of areas of land, as a result of measurement uncertainty, can lead to substantial financial penalties, resulting from litigation or unnecessary remediation. Previous studies have developed methods for the estimation and financial optimisation of measurement uncertainty. These methods have now been applied to a series of six contrasting site investigations, which were conducted by various commercial organisations. The previous uses of these sites included a gas works, a tin mine and railway sidings. The measurement uncertainty was successfully estimated for each of the six investigations, showing its applicability to a wide range of different sampling methods, such as trial pits, window sampling and augering. The measurement uncertainty ranged widely between sites from 25% to 158%, indicating that investigations can differ widely in their reliability. The field sampling tended to generate the largest component of the measurement uncertainty when compared to the contribution from the chemical analysis. The Optimised Contaminated Land Investigation (OCLI) method was applied to each site, with the initial aim of estimating the financial losses that could be incurred as a result of misclassifying the land, due to the uncertainty. It showed that the expectation of loss value per sampling location ranged from only £58 at one site to over £ 11 000 at another. The optimal level of uncertainty that produced the minimal financial loss was then calculated for each site. It provided a reduction in the expectation of loss for the whole site of over £ 10 000 at two of the sites and over £90 000 at two others. These findings demonstrate that implementing concepts of uncertainty can have practical benefits in environmental monitoring, and can enable improvements to be made in the quality of sampling and hence of measurements in general.     

Transient and spatial modeling and simulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers reaction and transport in air, water and soil

The release of the wastes containing polybrominated diphenyl ethers into the environment is a worldwide major concern. Investigation of spatial and temporal variations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers concentrations due to different factors, especially the transport of these species between air and water as well as between air and soil is the purpose of present research. A model was developed and solved using the methods of finite difference and lines. Simulations were implemented for three dimensions of width, length, and height and also time for the air compartment, whereas for the soil and water compartments, variations were considered only with respect to height and time. Transport between water and soil was disregarded for simplicity at this stage. Vancouver’s landfill was considered as a case study. Lower concentrations in air and higher concentrations in water at the interface show that these pollutants tend to diffuse from air to water. Concentrations of all four pollutants decrease near the interface in soil as time passes, but they are predicted to be almost constant at other levels.     

Geological and geomorphological problems caused by transportation and industry

Alterations in topography due to the construction of transport infrastructure and industrial development are the results of rather complex processes. The impact of transport constructions upsetting (topographic) equilibrium is manifested in a relatively narrow strip, and, mostly, through producing abnormally steep slopes, in reducing relief stability. The earthworks for transport routes are themselves also landscape-forming factors whereas in the case of industrial developments, planation is usually mentioned. Topographic changes related to the construction of transport infrastructure and industrial development are discussed historically in this chapter. Among the direct impacts of the first are those related to the construction of Roman and Medieval roads, hollow roads in loess, public roads, motorways, railways, canals, tunnels and airports; while of the second are those of early mining and metallurgy, cellars, sludge reservoirs, slag cones and fly-ash reservoirs, cooling ponds, industrial parks, shopping centres and waste disposal sites. Of the indirect ones, an introduction is given to impacts of surface sealing, changes in runoff, the ‘waterfall effect,’ as well as to environmental impacts under permafrost conditions.     

Strength and structure of laterites and lateritic soils

Ten soils from Puerto Rico representing various states of weathering were subjected to engineering index tests, strength and density measurement, mineralogic analyses, and scanning electron microscopy.Engineering classification systems used for temperate soils tend to underestimate the engineering behavior of these undisturbed lateritic soils and in the undisturbed state the soils exhibit low densities and high strengths.The engineering properties of the undisturbed soils show systematic trends in relation to the degree of weathering and the parent rock. For a given rock, the void ratio is decreased and cohesion increased as weathering proceeds. This is the result of increasing crystallization and cementation by the sesquioxides.The specific gravity of the solid particles is a promising index property to characterize these lateritic soils insofar as it reflects iron oxide content. The decrease in void ratio and increase in cohesion with increasing specific gravity suggests a model for the engineering classification of tropical soils.     

冰上丝绸之路与北极油气资源

油气是重要的战略资源。其中天然气作为清洁能源,它曾经是,现在是,在可预期的未来——全球碳减排、中国碳达峰情景下,仍然是最重要的能源资源。能源进口渠道的多元化一直是中国缓解能源紧张的有效措施之一。北极地区油气资源丰富且以天然气为主,已发现的油气资源中绝大多数在俄罗斯,尤其是天然气。但是俄罗斯天然气生产的油气田80%以上已经进入北极圈。2012年,中俄合作开发北极亚马尔液化天然气项目正式启动,标志着中国参与北极油气资源开发利用取得重要进展,也事实上开启了中国主导的"丝绸之路经济带建设"和俄罗斯主导的"欧亚经济联盟建设"对接合作的进程。北极地区已发现的油气资源共计3289.4亿桶油当量,其中石油605.4亿桶（84.1亿吨）油当量,仅为全球已发现石油资源的2.5%;天然气41.4万亿立方米（约合2683亿桶,372.6亿吨油当量）,占全球已发现天然气资源的15.5%。北极地区已发现的油气总资源中绝大多数在俄罗斯,俄罗斯已发现的北极油气资源合计2905亿桶油当量（403.5亿吨）,占88.3%;其中天然气约39.47万亿立方米,约合2557.9亿桶（355.3亿吨）油当量,占北极地区已发现天然气总资源的95%以上。北极待发现的油气资源量也非常可观,约占世界待发现常规石油资源的15%;天然气占世界待发现常规天然气资源的30%,其分布也主要在俄罗斯。随着全球气候变暖和能源战略博弈,俄罗斯为确保其天然气出口及财政来源,必然要加大北极油气、特别是天然气的开采和开发,并通过北极航道运到中国和其他消费国。本文在概括分析北极油气资源分布特点、俄罗斯油气资源与北极战略及北方海航道通行能力的基础上,回顾了北极亚马尔液化天然气项目诞生、发展演变及其国际博弈的背景;概括介绍了中国成功介入北极油气资源项目这一标志性事件过程,并进一步提出了中国对北极油气资源利用战略举措的建议。      

埃达克质岩与成矿:困惑与探索

根据起源于下地壳的中酸性岩浆岩的成分变化,可以约束其源区深度以及地壳最小厚度,为大陆板内成矿作用的深部过程研究提供重要信息。全球范围内,许多世界级斑岩铜矿和浅成热液矿化系统与同期的埃达克质岩存在密切的时空与成因联系,在国内主要成矿区带也识别出与金属成矿作用有关的埃达克(质)岩。与俯冲过程无关的埃达克质岩的识别,使我们有可能结合其他地质证据构建完全不同于Sillitoe(1972)B型俯冲环境的斑岩铜矿成矿模式的大陆板内斑岩(夕卡岩)型金属矿床成矿模式。对于规模巨大、矿质主要源自地幔的热液矿床的形成,埃达克(质)岩可能是必要条件,但不是充分条件。埃达克(质)岩的成矿潜力通过地幔物质加入而获取,埃达克(质)岩的成矿专属性由上地幔成矿元素分布特征决定。与俯冲有关的埃达克质岩浆之所以有利于成矿,重要的原因是存在大量来自俯冲板片的高压、高温流体以及俯冲板片熔融形成高氧逸度(fO2)的熔体,但产出在大陆板内背景、与俯冲无关的埃达克(质)岩的成矿机制还不清楚。根据现代资源勘查理念,结合综合地质信息分析,埃达克质岩具有实际找矿意义。     

Aims and implementation in British urban and regional planning

Failure to fully understand or recognise crucial but culturally-determined British dimensions has led to confusion and error even among the British geographers in understanding and contributing to, urban and regional planning. This point assumes more rather than less significance in the context of a discussion between British and Soviet geographers. This paper therefore examines in part one, three fundamental features of the British system of urban and regional planning and then proceeds in part two to focus on the aims and their implementation. It concludes with a reference to the nature of the relationship between planning and geography.     

额纳旗及其邻区闪长岩—花岗岩类地球化学特征及意义

对额济纳旗及其邻区四个地区的花岗岩类作了系统的地球化学研究,重点讨论了几个地区的岩石学特征,岩石地球化学特征及其构造意义.其岩石类型主要以闪长岩类和花岗岩类为主;四个地区SiO,和Al2O3含量变化范围较大,从w(SiO2)为47.88％～75.29％;w(Al2O3)为13.09％～17.49％;CIPW报告显示样品...     

Water-extractable and exchangeable phosphate in Martian and carbonaceous chondrite meteorites and in planetary soil analogs

Aqueous extraction contributes to the formation and weathering of planetary materials and renders electrolytes such as phosphate available for biology. In this context, the solubility of phosphate is measured in planetary materials, represented by the Mars meteorites Nakhla, Dar al Gani 476 (DaG 476), Elephant Morraine 79001 (EETA 79001), and terrestrial analogs, and in the Murchison CM2 and Allende CV3 carbonaceous chondrites. The Mars meteorites contain high levels of phosphate that is readily extracted by water, up to 15 mg kg⁻¹ in Nakhla and DaG 476 and 38 mg kg⁻¹ in EETA 79001, while the terrestrial analogs and the carbonaceous chondrites contain 0.5 to 6 mg kg⁻¹. Correspondingly, high phosphate concentrations of 4 to >28 mg L⁻¹ are obtained in extracts of the Mars meteorites at high solid/solution ratios, exceeding the concentrations of 0.4 to 2.0 mg L⁻¹ in the extracts of the terrestrial analogs. A wide range of planetary conditions, including N₂ and CO₂ atmospheres, solid/solution ratios of 0.01 to 1.0 kg L⁻¹, extraction times of 1 to 21 d, and temperatures of 20 to 121°C affect the amounts of extractable phosphate by factors of only 2 to 5 in most materials. Phosphate-fixing capacity and exchangeable phosphate are assessed by the isotopic exchange kinetics (IEK) method, which quantifies the amount of P isotopically exchangeable within 1 min (E_1min) and between 1 min and 3 months (E_1min-3m) and the amount of P that cannot be exchanged within 3 months (E_>3m). The IEK results show that the DaG 476 Mars meteorite and terrestrial analogs have low P-fixing capacities, while the carbonaceous chondrites have high P-fixing capacities. Aqueous processing under early planetary CO₂ atmospheres has large effects on the available phosphate. For example, the fraction of total P that is exchangeable in 3 months increases from 1.6 to 11%, 13 to 51.6%, and 43.9 to 90.4% in the DaG 476 Mars meteorite, Allende, and Murchison, respectively. The results show that solutions with high phosphate concentrations can form in the pores of planetary lava ash and basalts and in carbonaceous asteroids and meteorites. These solutions can help prebiotic synthesis and early microbial nutrition. The Martian and carbonaceous chondrite materials contain sufficient phosphate for space-based agriculture.     

Saturated and aromatic diterpenoids and triterpenoids in Eocene coals and mudstones from China

Several series of saturated, diaromatic, triaromatic C-ring cleaved and triaromatic diterpenoids and triterpenoids have been detected in 4 immature coal and mudstone samples. A number of these compounds appear to represent intermediates in a series of postulated pathways for progressive aromatization of biogenic diterpenoids and triterpenoids. Diagenetic pathways for the formation of tricyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from abietane and pimarane type diterpenoid precursors and for the formation of diaromatic, triaromatic C-cleaved and triaromatic hydrocarbons from β-amyrin and other triterpenoid precursors are proposed. Saturated and aromatized abietanes, pimaranes and phyllocladanes, which are the most abundant compounds in all 4 samples, indicate a predominant higher plant input which can be related to the Coniferales group but not to individual plant families. β-Amyrin and other triterpenoid-derived triaromatic and triaromatic C-ring cleaved hydrocarbons with triterpenoid structures are thought to be characteristic for angiosperms. The relative concentrations of the triaromatic and triaromatic C-ring cleaved hydrocarbons are higher in samples 9602 (mudstone) and 9603 (coal) than samples 9601 (coal) and 9604 (mudstone) indicating samples 9602 (mudstone) and 9603 (coal) contain relatively more angiosperm derived organic matter than samples 9601 (coal) and 9604 (mudstone). The distribution patterns and the relative concentrations of saturated and aromatic diterpenoids and triterpenoids thus are valuable markers for the determination of the relative contents of biological sources of organic material in geological samples.     

矿物——成矿与找矿

单颗粒矿物微量元素激光原位定量分析测试数据的大量积累和研究,使矿物成为矿床地球化学研究和矿床勘查的重要示踪剂。本文重点选择磁铁矿、磷灰石、石榴子石、榍石、锆石、绿泥石和绿帘石等的原位分析研究所获得的认识,介绍单颗粒矿物成分组合及变化在矿床类型划分、成矿年龄测定、氧逸度、成矿过程与物质来源、找矿与勘探等方面的应用。不同矿床类型中普遍存在的矿物,如磁铁矿、磷灰石等的微量元素含量及组合差异,提供了矿床类型识别的标志。单颗粒矿物,特别是矿石矿物和密切共生矿物如锡石、铌钽铁矿、赤铁矿、石榴子石、方解石等的原位定年,使成矿年龄的直接准确测定成为现实。矿物中变价元素,如Fe、V、Mn、Ce、Eu含量和/或比值的变化,指示了成矿过程氧逸度及其变化特点。从矿物核部向震荡环带与边部的微量元素含量或同位素组成的变化,示踪了成矿过程中流体来源或性质的变化。斑岩和矽卡岩矿床中与成矿作用关系密切的蚀变矿物,如绿泥石、绿帘石的形成温度、特征微量元素比值,如Ti/Sr、Ti/Co、V/Ni、Mg/Sr等,与距矿床中心距离呈线性函数关系,可定量预测距矿床中心的距离,使以绿泥石、绿帘石为代表的找矿指示矿物研究迅速发展。