Testing models for the development of spiral-shaped inclusion trails in garnet porphyroblasts: to rotate or not to rotate, that is the question

Abstract The formation of spiral-shaped inclusion trails (SSITs) is problematical, and the two viable models for their formation involve opposite shear senses along the foliation in which the porphyroblasts are growing. One model argues for porphyroblast rotation, with respect to a geographically fixed reference frame, whereas the other argues for no such porphyroblast rotation, but instead rotation of the matrix foliation around the porphyroblast. Thus, porphyroblasts with SSITs cannot be used as shear-sense indicators until it is conclusively determined which model best explains them.
Any successful model must explain features associated with SSITs, including: (1) foliation truncation zones, (2) smoothly curving SSITs, (3) millipede microstructure, (4) total inclusion-trail curvature in median sections, (5) porphyroblasts with SSITs that have grown together, (6) evidence for relative porphyroblast displacements, (7) shear-sense indicators inside and outside porphyroblasts; (8) crenulations associated with porphyroblasts and (9) geometries in sections subparallel to spiral axes (axes of rotation). A detailed study of these features suggests that most, if not all, can be explained by both the rotational and non-rotational models, in spite of these models involving diametrically opposed movement senses. Therefore, geometrical analysis of individual porphyroblast microstructures may not determine which model best explains SSITs until the kinematics required to form these microstructures are better understood, in particular the sense of shear along a developing crenulation cleavage. Specific tests for determining the shear sense along crenulation cleavages are proposed, and results of such tests may conclusively resolve the debate over how SSITs form.     

Numerical simulations of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails: can 3D geometry distinguish between end‐member models of spiral formation?

Numerical 3D simulations of the development of spiral inclusion trails in porphyroblasts were conducted in order to test the proposals that (a) 3D spiral geometry differs between the rotation and nonrotation end‐member models of spiral formation proposed in the literature, and (b) 3D spiral geometry can be used as a criterion to distinguish between the two end‐member models in rocks. Four principal differences are identified between the two sets of simulations: smoothness of spiral curvature; spacing of foliation planes; alignment of individual foliation planes either side of the sphere representing the porphyroblast; and spiral asymmetry with respect to matrix shear sense. Of these differences, only spiral asymmetry and possibly the alignment of individual foliation planes are diagnostic criteria for distinguishing between the end‐member models. In the absence of a readily applied test to distinguish the end‐member models, interpretation of spiral inclusion trails is problematic. It is necessary to determine complementary evidence to distinguish porphyroblast rotation or nonrotation during spiral formation.     

Interpretation of porphyroblast inclusion trails: limitations imposed by growth kinetics and strain rates

Porphyroblast inclusion trails provide important information about the tectonometamorphic evolution of a metamorphic rock. However, there remains considerable controversy over whether porphyroblasts rotate during bulk non-coaxial deformation.
With reference to an area of the Scandinavian Caledonides and utilizing existing data from theoretical and experimental modelling, this study demonstrates that both 'straight' and 'S-shaped' inclusion trails are consistent with an interpretation in terms of syndeformational porphyroblast growth in a regime approximating to Newtonian simple shear. At crustal strain rates of 10^-14 s^-1 and porphyroblast growth times of 0.1–1.0 Ma, it is shown that a maximum of 5-9 angular rotation would occur during growth. At faster strain rates of 10^-12 s^-1 (e.g. those in a shear zone) porphyroblast angular rotations of 90 are shown to occur in 0.1–0.25 Ma (i.e. times comparable with or faster than porphyroblastesis). In view of this, 'S-shaped' inclusion trails are to be expected in porphyroblasts growing in active shear zones or other situations of high shear strain, whereas 'straight' inclusion trails can be interpreted as static overgrowth of an existing fabric or as syndeformational porphyroblastesis at low strain rates.     

How useful are ‘millipede’ and other similar porphyroblast microstructures for determining synmetamorphic deformation histories?

ABSTRACT Oppositely concave microfolds (OCMs) in and adjacent to porphyroblasts can be classified into five nongenetic types. Type 1 OCMs are found in sections through porphyroblasts with spiral-shaped inclusion trails cut parallel to the spiral axes, and commonly show closed foliation loops. Type 2 OCMs, commonly referred to as ‘millipede’ microstructure, are highly symmetrical, the foliation folded into OCMs being approximately perpendicular to the overprinting foliation. Type 3 OCMs are similar to Type 2, but are asymmetrical, the foliation folded into OCMs being variably oblique to the overprinting foliation. Type 4 OCMs are highly asymmetrical, only one foliation is present, and this foliation is parallel to the local shear plane. Type 5 OCMs result from porphyroblast growth over a microfold interference pattern. Types 1 and 2 are commonly interpreted as indicating highly noncoaxial and highly coaxial bulk deformation paths, respectively, during porphyroblast growth. However, theoretically they can form by any deformation path intermediate between bulk coaxial shortening and bulk simple shearing. Given particular initial foliation orientation and timing of porphyroblast growth, Type 3 OCMs can also form during these intermediate deformation paths, and are commonly found in the same rocks as Type 2 OCMs. Type 4 OCMs may indicate highly noncoaxial deformation during porphyroblast growth, but may be difficult to distinguish from Type 3 OCMs. Thus, Types 1–3 (and possibly 4) reflect the finite strain state, giving no information about the rotational component of the deformation(s) responsible for their formation. Furthermore, there is a lack of unequivocal independent evidence for the degree of noncoaxiality of deformation (s) during the growth of porphyroblasts containing OCMs. Type 2 OCMs that occur independently of porphyroblasts or other rigid objects might indicate highly coaxial bulk shortening, but there is a lack of supporting physical or computer modelling. It is possible that microstructures in the matrix around OCMs formed during highly noncoaxial and highly coaxial deformation histories might have specific characteristics that allow them to be distinguished from one another. However, determining degrees of noncoaxiality from rock fabrics is a major, longstanding problem in structural geology.     

Flow kinematics in the deeper part of a subduction channel, as inferred from inclusion trails in plagioclase porphyroblasts from the Sambagawa metamorphic rocks, south-west Japan

The subduction and exhumation of accretionary prism metasedimentary rocks are accompanied by large‐strain ductile deformations which may be recorded in microstructures. Porphyroblast microstructures have been a key to unravel the kinematics in such deformed belts. Shape‐preferred orientation (SPO) of epidote and amphibole inclusions that define S‐shaped trails in prograde cores of plagioclase porphyroblasts were analysed from the high‐P/T Sambagawa metamorphic rocks. Inclusions are found to be elongate parallel to the [010] and [001] directions, respectively, and their long‐axis orientations define an internal foliation S_i (best‐fit great circle) and lineation L_i (maximum on the S_i). S‐shaped inclusion trails in the orthogonal sections do not exhibit the same geometries, but rather are grouped into two types, where the foliation intersection axes (FIAs) are nearly perpendicular and parallel to L_i, respectively. These two types of S‐shaped inclusion trails are seen in the sections inclined at low and high angles to the L_i, respectively. However, the latter type commonly consists of composite trails, where the S_i is first rotated about an FIA perpendicular to the L_i (i.e. unique axis), and then about an FIA parallel to the L_i. The S‐shaped inclusion trails are interpreted to have formed by the successive overgrowth of matrix minerals and rotation of the plagioclase porphyroblast cores about a unique axis in non‐coaxial deformation. The rotation of S_i about an FIA nearly parallel to the L_i is perhaps an apparent rotation, caused by the deflection of foliation around the growing prismatic plagioclase grain prior to inclusion into the porphyroblast. This study has for the first time documented the 3‐D geometry of S‐shaped inclusion trails in porphyroblasts from accretionary prism metasedimentary rocks and identified their origin, which helps to understand the flow kinematics in the deeper part of a subduction channel.     

Porphyroblast inclusion trails: the key to orogenesis

Detailed microstructural analysis of inclusion trails in hundreds of garnet porphyroblasts from rocks where spiral-shaped inclusion trails are common indicates that spiral-shaped trails did not form by rotation of the growing porphyroblasts relative to geographic coordinates. They formed instead by progressive growth by porphyroblasts over several sets of near-orthogonal foliations that successively overprint one another. The orientations of these near-orthogonal foliations are alternately near-vertical and near-horizontal in all porphyroblasts examined. This provides very strong evidence for lack of porphyroblast rotation.
The deformation path recorded by these porphyroblasts indicates that the process of orogenesis involves a multiply repeated two-stage cycle of: (1) crustal shortening and thickening, with the development of a near-vertical foliation with a steep stretching lineation; followed by (2) gravitational instability and collapse of this uplifted pile with the development of a near-horizontal foliation, gravitational spreading, near-coaxial vertical shortening and consequent thrusting on the orogen margins. Correlation of inclusion trail overprinting relationships and asymmetry in porphyroblasts with foliation overprinting relationships observed in the field allows determination of where the rocks studied lie and have moved within an orogen. This information, combined with information about chemical zoning in porphyroblasts, provides details about the structural/metamorphic ( P-T-t ) paths the rocks have followed.
The ductile deformation environment in which a porphyroblast can rotate relative to geographic coordinates during orogenesis is spatially restricted in continental crust to vertical, ductile tear/transcurrent faults across which there is no component of bulk shortening or transpression.     

Porphyroblast rotation during crenulation cleavage development: an example from the aureole of the Mooselookmeguntic pluton, Maine, USA

In the low‐pressure, high‐temperature metamorphic rocks of western Maine, USA, staurolite porphyroblasts grew at c. 400 Ma, very late during the regional orogenesis. These porphyroblasts, which preserve straight inclusion trails with small thin‐section‐scale variation in pitch, were subsequently involved in the strain and metamorphic aureole of the c. 370 Ma Mooselookmeguntic pluton. The aureole shows a progressive fabric intensity gradient from effectively zero emplacement‐related deformation at the outer edge of the aureole ～2900 m (map distance) from the pluton margin to the development of a pervasive emplacement‐related foliation adjacent to the pluton. The development of this pervasive foliation spanned all stages of crenulation cleavage development, which are preserved at different distances from the pluton. The spread of inclusion‐trail pitches in the staurolite porphyroblasts, as measured in two‐dimensional (2‐D) thin sections, increases nonlinearly from ～16° to 75° with increasing strain in the aureole. These data provide clear evidence for rotation of the staurolite porphyroblasts relative to one another and to the developing crenulation cleavage. The data spread is qualitatively modelled for both pure and simple shear, and both solutions match the data reasonably well. The spread of inclusion‐trail orientations (40–75°) in the moderately to highly strained rocks is similar to the spread reported in several previous studies. We consider it likely that the sample‐scale spread in these previous studies is also the result of porphyroblast rotation relative to one another. However, the average inclusion‐trail orientation for a single sample may, in at least some instances, reflect the original orientation of the overgrown foliation.     

Episodic porphyroblast growth in the Fleur de Lys Supergroup, Newfoundland: timing relative to the sequential development of multiple crenulation cleavages

Inclusion trails in garnet and albite porphyroblasts in the Fleur de Lys Supergroup preserve successive generations of microstructures, some of which correlate with equivalent microstructures in the matrix. Microstructure–porphyroblast relationships provide timing constraints on a succession of seven crenulation cleavages (S1–S7) and five stages of porphyroblast growth. Significant destruction and alteration of early fabrics has occurred during the microstructural development of the rock mass. Garnet porphyroblasts grew episodically through four growth stages (G1–G4) and preserve a succession of five fabrics (S1–S5) as inclusion trails. Garnet growth during each of the four growth phases did not occur on all pre-existing porphyroblasts, resulting in contrasting growth histories between individual garnet porphyroblasts from the same outcrop. Albite porphyroblasts grew during a single stage of growth and have overgrown microstructures continuous with the matrix. The garnet and albite porphyroblast inclusion trails record a succession of crenulation cleavages without any rotation of the porphyroblasts relative to other porphyroblasts in the population.
Complex microstructural histories are best resolved by preparing multiple oriented thin sections from a large number of samples of different rock types within the area of study. The succession of matrix foliations must be understood, as it provides the most useful time-frame against which to measure the relative timing of phases of porphyroblast growth. Comparable microstructures must be identified in different porphyroblasts and in the rock matrix.     

Lack of porphyroblast rotation in the Otago schists, New Zealand: implications for crenulation cleavage development, folding and deformation partitioning

Porphyroblasts of garnet and plagioclase in the Otago schists have not rotated relative to geographic coordinates during non-coaxial deformation that post-dates their growth. Inclusion trails in most of the porphyroblasts are oriented near-vertical and near-horizontal, and the strike of near-vertical inclusion trails is consistent over 3000 km². Microstructural relationships indicate that the porphyroblasts grew in zones of progressive shortening strain, and that the sense of shear affecting the geometry of porphyroblast inclusion trails on the long limbs of folds is the same as the bulk sense of displacement of fold closures. This is contrary to the sense of shear inferred when porphyroblasts are interpreted as having rotated during folding.
Several crenulation cleavage/fold models have previously been developed to accommodate the apparent sense of rotation of porphyroblasts that grew during folding. In the light of accumulating evidence that porphyroblasts do not generally rotate, the applicability of these models to deformed rocks is questionable.
Whether or not porphyroblasts rotate depends on how deformation is partitioned. Lack of rotation requires that progressive shearing strain (rotational deformation) be partitioned around rigid heterogeneities, such as porphyroblasts, which occupy zones of progressive shortening or no strain (non-rotational deformation). Therefore, processes operating at the porphyroblast/matrix boundary are important considerations. Five qualitative models are presented that accommodate stress and strain energy at the boundary without rotating the porphyroblast: (a) a thin layer of fluid at the porphyroblast boundary; (2) grain-boundary sliding; (3) a locked porphyroblast/matrix boundary; (4) dissolution at the porphyroblast/matrix boundary, and (5) an ellipsoidal porphyroblast/shadow unit.     

Microstructure, metamorphism and tectonics of the western Cape Breton Highlands, Nova Scotia

ABSTRACT Microstructural and petrological data from the Jumping Brook metamorphic suite, western Cape Breton Highlands, suggest that a single episode of syntectonic prograde metamorphism, followed by uplift, cooling and associated retrogression, affected these rocks during mid-Palaeozoic times. Microstructures indicative of progressive crenulation foliation development can be traced from low-grade (chlorite zone) through high-grade (kyanite zone) rocks, allowing a clear sequence of porphyroblast growth to be established. Metamorphic reactions and P-T calculations suggest metamorphic conditions of 700-750°C at 8-10 kbar were achieved in kyanite zone rocks. Although a complete P-T-t path was not defined, combined petrological and geochronological data can be used to constrain computed P-T-t models. These models suggest that a component of post-metamorphic tectonic exhumation is required to explain the observed times of cooling and uplift. The microstructural and petrological data to not support the interpretation that the high-grade rocks represent pre-existing crystalline basement. Indeed, the metamorphic history, geochronology and computed tectonic models all point to a single, short-lived episode of Silurian-Devonian volcanism, intrusion, convergence, regional metamorphism and uplift, probably resulting from collision tectonics at an irregular continental margin.     

Foliation development and refraction in metamorphic rocks: reactivation of earlier foliations and decrenulation due to shifting patterns of deformation partitioning

Abstract Reactivation of early foliations accounts for much of the progressive strain at more advanced stages of deformation. Its role has generally been insufficiently emphasized because evidence is best preserved where porphyroblasts which contain inclusion trails are present. Reactivation occurs when progressive shearing, operating in a synthetic anastomosing fashion parallel to the axial planes of folds, changes to a combination of coarse- and finescale zones of progressive shearing, some of which operate antithetically relative to the bulk shear on a fold limb. Reactivation of earlier foliations occurs in these latter zones. Reactivation decrenulates pre-existing or just-formed crenulations, generating shearing along the decrenulated or rotated pre-existing foliation planes. Partitioning of deformation within these foliation planes, such that phyllosilicates and/or graphite take up progressive shearing strain and other minerals accommodate progressive shortening strain, causes dissolution of these other minerals. This results in concentration of the phyllosilicates in a similar, but more penetrative manner to the formation of a differentiated crenulation cleavage, except that the foliation can form or intensify on a fold limb at a considerable angle to the axial plane of synchronous macroscopic folds. Reactivation can generate bedding-parallel schistosity in multideformed and metamorphosed terrains without associated folds. Heterogeneous reactivation of bedding generates rootless intrafolial folds with sigmoidal axial planes from formerly through-going structures. Reactivation causes rotation or ‘refraction’of axial-plane foliations (forming in the same deformation event causing reactivation) in those beds or zones in which an earlier foliation has been reactivated, and results in destruction of the originally axial-plane foliation at high strains. Reactivation also provides a simple explanation for the apparently ‘wrong sense’, but normally observed ‘rotation’of garnet porphyroblasts, whereby the external foliation has undergone rotation due to antithetic shear on the reactivated foliation. Alternatively, the rotation of the external foliation can be due to its reactivation in a subsequent deformation event. Porphyroblasts with inclusion trails commonly preserve evidence of reactivation of earlier foliations and therefore can be used to identify the presence of a deformation that has not been recognized by normal geometric methods, because of penetrative reactivation. Reactivation often reverses the asymmetry between pre-existing foliations and bedding on one limb of a later fold, leading to problems in the geometric analysis of an area when the location of early fold hinges is essential. The stretching lineation in a reactivated foliation can be radically reoriented, potentially causing major errors in determining movement directions in mylonitic schistosities in folded thrusts. Geometric relationships which result from reactivation of foliations around porphyroblasts can be used to aid determination of the timing of the growth of porphyroblasts relative to deformation events. Other aspects of reactivation, however, can lead to complications in timing of porphyroblast growth if the presence of this phenomenon is not recognized; for example, D₂-grown porphyroblasts may be dissolved against reactivated S₁ and hence appear to have grown syn-D₁.     

Distinguishing and correlating multiple phases of metamorphism across a multiply deformed region using the axes of spiral, staircase and sigmoidal inclusion trails in garnet

Schists from the Appalachian Orogen in south-east Vermont have undergone multiple phases of garnet growth. These phases can be distinguished by the trend and relative timing of f oliation i nflexion or i ntersection a xes (FIAs) of foliations preserved as inclusion trails in garnet porphyroblasts. The relative timing of different generations of FIAs is determined from samples containing porphyroblasts with two or three differently trending FIAs developed outwards from core to rim (multi-FIA porphyroblasts). Schists from south-east Vermont show a consistent pattern of relative clockwise rotation of FIA trends from oldest to youngest. Four populations or sets of FIAs can be distinguished on the basis of their relative timings and trends. From oldest to youngest, the four sets have modal peaks trending SW–NE, W–E, NNW–SSE and SSW–NNE. These peaks show that each of the four FIA sets has a statistically consistent trend at all scales across a 35×125 km area containing numerous mesoscopic and macroscopic folds. The FIAs of Set 4 are defined by inclusion trails that are continuous with matrix foliations, have trends subparallel to most folds and are inferred to have developed contemporaneously with these structures. Conversely, Sets 1 to 3 are oblique to and pre-date most matrix foliations and folds. All four FIA sets occur in Siluro-Devonian rocks and must have formed in the Acadian Orogeny. The lack of statistically significant differences in the distribution of FIA trends across the study area and their consistent relative timings in multi-FIA porphyroblasts, despite a complex regional deformation history involving numerous phases of folding at all scales, suggest the porphyroblasts have not rotated relative to one another. The change in FIA trend with time resulted from rotation of the kinematic reference frame of bulk flow, possibly as a consequence of the reorganization of lithospheric plates responsible for Acadian orogenesis. Recognition of distinct generations of FIAs provides a means of distinguishing different phases of porphyroblast growth. Four periods of garnet porphyroblast growth occurred in the schists of south-east Vermont. This growth was heterogeneously distributed on the cm²–m² scale. No single porphyroblast records all stages of growth, and adjacent samples from the same or dissimilar rock types commonly contain porphyroblasts that preserve different sequences of growth. Factors that may have been responsible for switching porphyroblast growth on and off at this scale include: (i) subtle differences in bulk chemical composition; (ii) oscillating levels of heat, owing to the buffering effect of endothermic garnet-forming reactions; (iii) channelized infiltration of fluids with localized fluid buffering of bulk composition; and (iv) cyclic controls on the rates of diffusion and material transport of reactants, either by channelized fluid flow or by a changing pattern of microfracturing during foliation development. Consistency in FIA trend and relative timing provide a new method for potentially distinguishing and correlating successive metamorphic events, or even phases of metamorphism within a progressive tectonothermal event, along and across orogens. Using a consistent pattern of core to rim changes in FIA trend, multiple phases of growth of a single porphyroblastic mineral can be quantitatively distinguished, allowing correlation of different phases of growth around and across macroscopic folds. The relative timing of growth of different porphyroblastic minerals can also be quantitatively determined using FIA data and correlated around and across macroscopic folds. Conceptually, the paragenetic history preserved in each generation of porphyroblast growth, in the form of chemical zoning and the minerals in inclusion trails, could be combined to produce a more detailed P–T–t–deformation path than previously determined.     

The development of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails during multiple metamorphism and folding

Three periods of mineral growth and three generations of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails have been distinguished within folded rocks of the Qinling‐Dabie Orogen, China, using the development of three successive and differently trending sets of foliation intersection axes preserved in porphyroblasts (FIAs). This progression is revealed by the consistent relative sequence of changes in FIA trends from the core to rim of garnet porphyroblasts in samples with multiple FIAs. The first and second formed sets of FIAs trend oblique to the axial planes of macroscopic folds that dominate the outcrop pattern in this region. The porphyroblasts containing these FIAs grew prior to the development of the macroscopic folds, yet the FIAs do not change orientation across the fold hinges. The youngest formed FIAs (set 3) lie subparallel to the axial planes of these folds and the porphyroblasts containing these FIAs formed in part as the folds developed. The deformation associated with all three generations of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails in garnet porphyroblasts involved the formation of subhorizontal and subvertical foliations against porphyroblast rims accompanied by periods of garnet growth; pervasive structures have not necessarily formed in the matrix away from the porphyroblasts. The macroscopic folds are heterogeneously strained from limb to limb, doubly plunging and have moderately dipping axial planes. The consistent orientation of Set 1 FIAs indicates that the development of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails in porphyroblasts with FIAs belonging to Set 2 did not involve rotation of the previously formed porphyroblasts. The consistent orientation of Sets 1 and 2 FIAs indicate that the development of spiral‐shaped inclusion trails in porphyroblasts with FIAs belonging to Set 3 did not involve rotation of the previously formed porphyroblasts during folding. This requires a fold mechanism of progressive bulk inhomogeneous shortening and demonstrates that spiral‐shaped inclusion trails can form outside of shear zones.     

Unravelling the spirals: a serial thin-section study and three-dimensional computer-aided reconstruction of spiral-shaped inclusion trails in garnet porphyroblasts

Abstract Seventy-seven spatially orientated, serial thin sections cut from a single rock reveal changes in the geometry of spiral-shaped inclusion trails (SSITs) in garnet porphyroblasts. The observed SSITs are doubly curved, non-cylindrical surfaces, with total inclusion-trail curvature decreasing systematically from the cores to the rims of porphyroblasts. The three-dimensional geometry of the SSITs, reconstructed with the aid of computer graphics, shows that the orientations of spiral axes defined by the SSITs are not related in any expected nor predictable way to the main foliation in the matrix. This suggests continued deformation after or during the latest stages of porphyroblast growth, which has important implications for the use of SSITs as shear-sense indicators. Whether the formation of SSITs involves significant porphyroblast rotation with respect to a geographically fixed reference frame cannot be determined from the available data.     

Tectono‐metamorphic history recorded in garnet porphyroblasts: insights from thermodynamic modelling and electron backscatter diffraction analysis of inclusion trails

In a Barrovian metamorphic sequence, garnetiferous mica schists document a heterogeneously developed superposition of sub‐orthogonal fabrics and multiple garnet growth episodes. In the variably deformed domains, four types of garnet porphyroblasts have been defined based on inclusion trail patterns. Modelled garnet zoning in the MnNCKFMASHTO system indicates a prograde evolution from 4–4.5 kbar and 490–510 °C to 5–6 kbar and 520–550 °C in the earliest subhorizontal fabric progressing towards 6.5–7.5 kbar and 560–590 °C in the subsequent subvertical foliation. This fabric is heterogeneously deformed into a shallow‐dipping retrograde foliation associated with garnet resorption. In situ electron backscatter diffraction measurements of ilmenite inclusions in individual garnet grains yield precise data on included planar and linear elements. Consistent orientations of internal foliations, lineations and foliation intersection axis sets indicate a superposition of three sub‐orthogonal foliation systems. Weak variations of internal records with increasing intensity of deformation suggest that a moderate buckling stage occurred, but apparent lack of porphyroblast rotation is interpreted as a result of dominant passive flow. Coupling the orientation of internal fabric sets with P–T estimates is used to complement the tectono‐metamorphic evolution of the thickened crust. We demonstrate that garnet porphyroblasts preserve features which reflect large‐scale tectonic processes in orogens.     

Polyphase deformation and garnet growth in pelitic schists of Sausar Group in Ramtek area,Maharashtra, India: A study of porphyroblast-matrix relationship

Polyphase deformation and metamorphism of pelitic schists of Chorbaoli Formation of Sausar Group in and around Ramtek area, Nagpur district, Maharashtra, India has led to the development of garnet and sataurolite porphyroblasts in a predominantly quartz-mica matrix. Microstructural study of oriented thin sections of these rocks shows that garnet and staurolite have different growth histories and these porphyroblasts share a complex relationship with the matrix. Garnet shows at least two phases of growth — first intertectonic between D₁ and D₂ (pre-D₂ phase) and then syn-tectonic to post-tectonic with respect to D₂ deformation. Growth of later phase of garnet on the earlier (pre-D₂) garnet grains has led to the discordance of quartz inclusion trails between core and rim portion of the same garnet grain. Staurolite develops only syn-D₂ and shows close association with garnet of the later phase. The peak metamorphic temperature thus coincided with D₂ deformation, which developed the dominant crenulation schistosity (S₂), regionally persistent in the terrain. The metamorphic grade reached up to middle amphibolite facies in the study area, which is higher than the adjoining southern parts of Sausar Fold Belt.     

Spiral and staircase inclusion trail axes within garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts from schists of the Bolton Syncline, Connecticut: timing of porphyroblast growth and the effects of fold development

In the Littleton Formation, garnet porphyroblasts preserve three generations of growth that occurred before formation of the Bolton Syncline. Inclusion trails of foliations overgrown by these porphyroblasts are always truncated by the matrix foliation suggesting that garnet growth predated the matrix foliation. In contrast, many staurolite porphyroblasts grew synchronously with formation of the Bolton Syncline. However, local rim overgrowths of the matrix foliation suggest that some staurolite porphyroblasts continued to grow after development of the fold during younger crenulation producing deformations. The axes of curvature or intersection of foliations defined by inclusion trails inside the garnet porphyroblasts lie oblique to the axial plane of the Bolton Syncline but do not change orientation across it. This suggests the garnets were not rotated during the subsequent deformation associated with fold development or during even younger crenulation events. Three samples also contain a different set of axes defined by curvature of inclusion trails in the cores of garnet porphyroblasts suggesting a protracted history of garnet growth. Foliation intersection axes in staurolite porphyroblasts are consistently orientated close to the trend of the axial plane of the Bolton Syncline on both limbs of the fold. In contrast, axes defined by curvature or intersection of foliations in the rims of staurolite porphyroblasts in two samples exhibit a different trend. This phase of staurolite growth is associated with a crenulation producing deformation that postdated formation of the Bolton Syncline. Measurement of foliation intersection axes defined by inclusion trails in both garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts has enabled the timing of growth relative to one another and to the development of the Bolton Syncline to be distinguished in rocks where other approaches have not been successful. Consistent orientation of foliation intersection axes across a range of younger structures suggests that the porphyroblasts did not rotate relative to geographical coordinates during subsequent ductile deformation. Foliation intersection axes in porphyroblasts are thus useful for correlating phases of porphyroblastic growth in this region.     

Behaviour of rigid objects during deformation and metamorphism: a test using schists from the Bolton syncline, Connecticut, USA

The behaviour of spherical versus highly ellipsoidal rigid objects in folded rocks relative to one another or the Earth’s surface is of particular significance for metamorphic and structural geologists. Two common porphyroblastic minerals, garnet and staurolite, approximate spherical and highly ellipsoidal shapes respectively. The motion of both phases is analysed using the axes of inflexion or intersection of one or more foliations preserved as inclusion trails within them (we call these axes FIAs, for foliation inflexion/intersection axes). For staurolite, this motion can also be compared with the distribution of the long axes of the crystals. Schists from the regionally shallowly plunging Bolton syncline commonly contain garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts, whose FIAs have been measured in the same sample. Garnet porphyroblasts pre-date this fold as they have inclusion trails truncated by all matrix foliations that trend parallel to the strike of the axial plane. However, they have remarkably consistent FIA trends from limb to limb. The FIAs trend 175° and lie 25°NNW from the 020° strike of the axial trace of the Bolton syncline. The plunge of these FIAs was determined for six samples and all lie within 30° of the horizontal. Eleven of these samples also contain staurolite porphyroblasts, which grew before, during and after formation of the Bolton syncline as they contain inclusion trails continuous with matrix foliations that strike parallel to the axial trace of this fold. The staurolite FIAs have an average trend of 035°, 15°NE from the 020° strike of the axial plane of this fold. The total amount of inclusion trail curvature in staurolite porphyroblasts, about the axis of relative rotation between staurolite and the matrix (i.e. the FIA), is greater than the angular spread of garnet FIAs. Although staurolite porphyroblasts have ellipsoidal shapes, their long axes exhibit no tendency to be preferentially aligned with respect to the main matrix foliation or to the trend of their FIA. This indicates that the axis of relative rotation, between porphyroblast and matrix (the FIA), was not parallel to the long axis of the crystals. It also suggests that the porphyroblasts were not preferentially rotated towards a single stretch direction during progressive deformation. Five overprinting crenulation cleavages are preserved in the matrix of rocks from the Bolton syncline and many of these result from deformation events that post-date development of this fold. Staurolite porphyroblast growth occurred during the development of all of these deformations, most of which produced foliations. Staurolite has overgrown, and preserved as helicitic inclusions, crenulated and crenulation cleavages; i.e. some inclusion trail curvature pre-dates porphyroblast growth. The deformations accompanying staurolite growth involved reversals in shear sense and changing kinematic reference frames. These relationships cannot all be explained by current models of rotation of either, or both, the garnet and staurolite porphyroblasts. In contrast, we suggest that the relationships are consistent with models of deformation paths that involve non-rotation of porphyroblasts relative to some external reference frame. Further, we suggest there is no difference in the behaviour of spherical or ellipsoidal rigid objects during ductile deformation, and that neither garnet nor staurolite have rotated in schists from the Bolton syncline during the multiple deformation events that include and post-date the development of this fold.     

河南刘山岩铜锌矿床石英中流体包裹体类型及FIP新资料

在刘山岩矿床矿石和围岩石英所含的流体包裹体中,发现2种新类型流体包裹体,即后期变形阶段的淡化水流体包裹体和成岩早期的NaCl子矿物多相包裹体,并重点研究了流体包裹体面(FIP)中包裹体发育情况.块状铜锌矿石、条带状矿石和糜棱岩化石英角斑岩中FIP特别发育,通常FIP以高角度与石英的拉长方向相交(或垂直于岩石的叶理面).FIP中大多数流体包裹体具有中温(均一温度120~220 ℃)、中盐度(3.4%~14.5%).更重要的是:FIP中普遍含有低盐度(3.4%~6.4%),部分甚至含有更低盐度(0.2%~1.7%)的淡化水流体包裹体,这表明淡化水流体(或大气降水)在造山变形后期曾经参与过FIP古流体的活动.