Thermal- and plasma-induced molecular redistribution on the icy satellites

The molecular transport of condensed gas species across the surfaces of the icy satellites of Jupiter and Saturn is examined with the view of describing, in part, certain gross visual features associated with these bodies. Molecular redistribution induced by thermal sublimation and magnetospheric plasma-ion impact on satellites with negligible atmospheres is calculated by assuming that the molecules follow ballistic trajectories and by statistically selecting initial molecular velocities and points of origin. Erosion/deposition profiles so calculated are compared for a variety of satellite sizes and environments in order to understand the relative importance of sublimation and cold corotating plasma-ion- and fast plasma-ion-induced transport. The results are scaled to make them useful as new data is available for the icy satellites and their plasma environment. The erosion/deposition profiles are then used to discuss the appearance of a polar frost on Ganymede. A balance of magnetospheric-ion implantation and ion-induced molecular redistribution is used to discuss the observation of embedded SO₂ and the darkening of the trailing side on Europa. Ion-induced molecular transport may also limit the deposition of SO₂ frost in the polar regions of Io and may be a source of heavy particles in the Jovian and Saturnian magnetospheres.     

Cryovolcanism on the icy satellites

Evidence of past cryovolcanism is widespread and extremely varied on the icy satellites. Some cryovolcanic landscapes, notably on Triton, are similar to many silicate volcanic terrains, including what appear to be volcanic rifts, calderas and solidified lava lakes, flow fields, breached cinder cones or stratovolcanoes, viscous lava domes, and sinuous rilles. Most other satellites have terrains that are different in the important respect that no obvious volcanoes are present. The preserved record of cryovolcanism generally is believed to have formed by eruptions of aqueous solutions and slurries. Even Triton's volcanic crust, which is covered by nitrogen-rich frost, is probably dominated by water ice. Nonpolar and weakly polar molecular liquids (mainly N₂, CH₄, CO, CO₂, and Ar), may originate by decomposition of gas-clathrate hydrates and may have been erupted on some icy satellites, but without water these substances do not form rigid solids that are stable against sublimation or melting over geologic time. Triton's plumes, active at the time of Voyager 2's flyby, may consist of multicomponent nonpolar gas mixtures. The plumes may be volcanogenic fumaroles or geyserlike emissions powered by deep internal heating, and, thus, the plumes may be indicating an interior that is still cryomagmatically active; or Triton's plumes may be powered by solar heating of translucent ices very near the surface. The Uranian and Neptunian satellites Miranda, Ariel, and Triton have flow deposits that are hundreds to thousands of meters thick (implying highly viscous lavas); by contrast, the Jovian and Saturnian satellites generally have plains-forming deposits composed of relatively thin flows whose thicknesses have not been resolved in Voyager images (thus implying relatively low-viscosity lavas). One possible explanation for this inferred rheological distinction involves a difference in volatile composition of the Uranian and Neptunian satellites on one hand and of the Jovian and Saturnian satellites on the other hand. Perhaps the Jovian and Saturnian satellites tend to have relatively "clean" compositions with water ice as the main volatile (ammonia and water-soluble salts may also be present). The Uranian and Neptunian satellites may possess large amounts of a chemically unequilibrated comet-like volatile assemblage, including methanol, formaldehyde, and a host of other highly water- and ammonia-water-soluble constituents and gas clathrate hydrates. These two volatile mixtures would produce melts that differ enormously in viscosity The geomorphologic similarity in the products of volcanism on Earth and Triton may arise partly from a rheological similarity of the ammonia-water-methanol series of liquids and the silicate series ranging from basalt to dacite. An abundance of gas clathrate hydrates hypothesized to be contained by the satellites of Uranus and Neptune could contribute to evidence of explosive volcanism on those objects.     

Fluffy layers obtained by ion bombardment of frozen methane: Experiments and applications to Saturnian and Uranian satellites

We present experimental results on some physical properties of thick organic residues obtained by bombarding frozen methane with 1.5 MeV protons. After proton fluences of ～1E + 16 protons cm^?2 the synthesized layers appear to be amorphous and fluffy, and to have low density. Their IR transmission spectrum (2.5–10 μm) is typical of long-chain polymerlike substances. At higher fluences (～1E + 17 protons cm^?2) the residues evolve into a carbonlike dark material, the density as well as the stoichiometric ratio C:H increases and the IR features are decreased in strengths. Their reflectance spectrum (0.6?2.5 μm) resembles that of charcoal. We suggest that the new materials can be present on/in the surfaces of the Uranian satellites, of Hyperion, and the dark side of lapetus. We show in fact that they could be synthesized in large quantities during the T Tau phase of the Sun when a copious emission of mega-electronvolt protons is plausible. This assumes that Saturnian and Uranian satellites were partially methane covered in the first evolutive stage of the Solar System.     

Photometric properties of outer planetary satellites

We present optical broadband photometry for the satellites J6, J7, J8, S7, S9, U3, U4, N1, and polarimetry for J6, obtained between 1970 and 1979. The outer Jovian satellites resemble C-type asteroids; J6 has a rotational lightcurve with period ～9.5 hr. The satellites beyond Jupiter also show C-like colors with the exception of S7 Hyperion. S9 Phoebe has a rotational lightcurve with period near either 11.25 or 21.1 hr. For U4 and N1 there is evidence for a lightcurve synchronous with the orbital revolution. The seven brighter Saturnian satellites show a regular relation between the ultraviolet dropoff and distance to the planet, probably related with differences in the rock component on their surfaces.     

CO2 production by ion irradiation of H2O ice on top of carbonaceous materials and its relevance to the Galilean satellites

In this work we report on new experiments of ion irradiation of water ice deposited on top of solid carbonaceous materials to study the production of CO₂ at the interface ice/refractory material and discuss the possibility that this mechanism accounts for the quantity of CO₂ ice detected on the surfaces of the Galilean satellites. The used experimental technique has been in situ infrared spectroscopy. We have irradiated thin films of H₂O frost on carbonaceous layers with 200 keV of He⁺ and Ar⁺, and 30 keV of He⁺ at 16 and 80 K. The used carbonaceous layers have been asphaltite, a natural bitumen, and solid organic residues obtained by irradiation of frozen benzene. In both cases the results show that CO₂ is produced very efficiently after irradiation obtaining a maximum quantity of the order of . These results are, also quantitatively similar, to those recently obtained for water ice deposited on amorphous carbon films [Mennella, V., Palumbo, M.E., Baratta, G.A., 2004. Formation of CO and CO₂ molecules by ion irradiation of water ice covered hydrogenated carbon grains. Astrophys. J. 615, 1073-1080]. Thus we suggest that, whatever is the carbonaceous residue, CO₂ will be produced efficiently by the studied process. These results have interest in the context of the surfaces of the icy Galilean satellites in which CO₂ has been detected mainly trapped in the non-ice material, not in the pure water ice. We suggest that radiolysis of mixtures of water ice and refractory carbonaceous materials is the primary formation mechanism responsible for the CO₂ formation on the surfaces of the Galilean satellites.     

Occurrence of central peak craters on the Uranian satellites: Implications for surface structure and comparison with the Jovian and Saturnian systems

Craters with central peaks occur on the Uranian satellites Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon; but do not occur on Miranda. The inelastic surface of Miranda is apparently due to the heavy tectonic reworking of its surface. A theory of expansion/contraction is proposed to explain the tectonic history of Miranda. The existence of central peak craters on the four largest satellites of Uranus implies that they have surface strengths similar to those of the Saturnian satellites and silicate bodies of the inner solar system which all have central peak craters. The absence of central peak craters on Miranda implies that it has an inelastic surface similar to those of the Jovian ice satellites Ganymede and Callisto whose surfaces do not contain central peak craters.     

Compositional anomaly of Ganymede and Callisto among the ice satellites as inferred from impact crater morphology

Differences in crater morphology between the Jovian and Saturnian-Uranian ice satellites implies a weaker surface strength for Ganymede and Callisto and thus a more concentrated composition of water. This compositional anomaly among the ice satellites is apparently due to a more complete migration of heavy material toward the inner part of the pre-planetary disc of the Jovian system than occurred in the discs of the Saturnian and Uranian systems.     

Inferred heat transfer mechanisms and tectonic development of planets and satellites

A schematic diagram showing the relative importance of conduction, convection and hotspots as heat transfer mechanisms on planets has been previously described by Solomon and Head (1982). In their construction they assumed that the majority of heat transfer on Earth involved mantle convection (and hence, plate recycling), with Io and Mercury dominated by hotspot and conduction, respectively. This diagram is here quantified and used to deduce the tectonic regime of Jovian and Saturnian satellites.     

Angular momentum and tidal evolution of Saturn's system

It has been demonstrated that dynamically the Saturnian system is analogous to the Jovian system; however, it is not an analogue of the Solar system as a whole. The departures in the figure parameters of the tri-axial Saturnian satellites orbiting in 1 : 1 resonance, from equilibrium figure parameters are not large in general, and the tidal and centrifugal distorting forces can be supposed to be responsible for the actual figures. The estimates for different dynamical parameters of the system support the hypothesis that the tri-axial satellites in 1 : 1 resonance were formed from the same protoplanetary nebula that gave rise to Saturn.     

An evolutionary framework for the Jovian and Saturnian satellites

The position of the satellite within the protonebula, the influence of the parent planet, particularly the relative effects of tidal (gravitational) as opposed to radiogenic (internal) heat generating processes, as well as the type of ice, exert a control on the evolutionary histories of the Jovian and Saturnian satellites. The landscapes of the moons are modified by surface deformational processes (tectonic activity derived from within the body) and externally derived cratering. The geological history of the Galilean satellites is deduced from surface stratigraphic successions of geological units. Io and Europa, with crater-free surfaces, are tectonically more advanced than crater-saturated Callisto.Two thermal-drive models are proposed based on: an expression for externally derived gravitational influences between two bodies; and internal heat generation via radiogenic decay (expressed by surface area/volume ratio). Both parameters, for the Galilean satellites, are plotted against an inferred product of tectonic processes — the age of the surface terrain. From these diagrams, the tectonic evolutionary state of the more distant Saturnian system are predicted. These moons are fitted into an evolutionary framework for the Solar System.Based on a paper presented at the 1985 Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand.     

A new empirical formula for satellite distances and its explanation

We found a new empirical fonmula for the distance of the n-th satellite in the Jovian, Saturnian and Uranian systems, a_n = B₁ × Bⁿ, with just two constants b₁ and B for each system. The difference between the observed distances and the values calculated according to this formula is generally less than 10%. We take the view that the satellites were formed from the accretion of planetesimals in the gas-planetesimal disk surrounding the planet, that the main component of the disk was gas so that the effect of gas drag would be very important in the above process. Our theoretical analysis shows that one type of radial perturbation in the disk will lead to instability and hence the formation of gaseous rings with enhanced density. Within these rings, the planetesimals stick together to form the satellites, and it is the form of the distribution of the rings that leads to the distance law.     

Saturn satellite observations and orbits from the 1980 ring plane crossing

The ground-based observations of the recently discovered Saturnian satellites, obtained during the 1980 apparition, have been collected from the IAU Circulars and identified with and fit to four orbital groups: (1) the inner pair of coorbital librating satellites, (2) the satellite known as “Dione B” near the L₄ point of Dione-Saturn, (3) the satellites associated with the L₄ and L₅ points of Tethys-Saturn or, alternatively, one satellite unconfortably near the orbit of Tethys, and (4) the F-ring satellites observed by Voyager I.     

Rare opportunity for information on the upper atmosphere of Saturn

We report on taking, successfully, the rare opportunity to monitor photoelectrically the eclipse of Saturn's largest satellite (Titan) and present a light curve. Comparing this light curve with similar ones obtained for Jovian satellites we deduce the Saturnian stratosphere to be relatively clear, at least at the latitude (25° S) probed.     

Theoretical predictions of deuterium abundances in the Jovian planets

Using current concepts for the origin of the Jovian planets and current constraints on their interior structure, we argue that the presence of large amounts of “ice” (H₂O, CH₄, and NH₃) in Uranus and Neptune indicates temperatures low enough to condense these species at the time Uranus and Neptune formed. Yet such low temperatures imply orders-of-magnetude fractionation effects for deuterium into the “ice” component if isotopic equilibration can occur. Our models thus imply that Uranus and Neptune should have a D/H ratio at least four times primordial, contrary to observation for Uranus. We find that the Jovian and Saturnian D/H should be close to primordial regardless of formation scenario. The Uranus anomaly could indicate that there was a strong initial radial gradient in D/H in the primordial solar nebula, or that Uranus is so inactive that no significant mixing of its interior has occurred over the age of the solar system. Observation of Neptune's atmospheric D/H may help to resolve the problem.     

Ion irradiation of H2O ice on top of sulfurous solid residues and its relevance to the Galilean satellites

In this paper we present the results of new experiments of ion irradiation of water ice deposited on top of a solid sulfurous residue to study the potential formation of SO₂ at the interface ice/refractory material and discuss the possibility that this mechanism accounts for the sulfur dioxide ice detected on the surfaces of the Galilean satellites. In situ infrared spectroscopy was the used experimental technique. We have irradiated a thin film of H₂O frost on a sulfurous layer with 200 keV of He⁺ at 80 K. The used sulfurous residue was obtained by irradiation of frozen SO₂ at 16 K and it is used as a template of sulfur bearing solid materials. We have not found evidences of the efficient formation of SO₂ after irradiation of H₂O ice on top of the sulfurous residue. An upper limit to the production yield of SO₂, of interface area for each 100 eV of energy absorbed in 1 cm³ of ice-covered residue, has been estimated. These results have relevance in the context of the surfaces of the icy Galilean satellites in which SO₂ was detected. Our results show that radiolysis of mixtures of water ice and refractory sulfurous materials is not the primary formation mechanism responsible for the SO₂ present on the surfaces of the Galilean satellites.     

Ionization chemistry in H<Subscript>2</Subscript>O-dominated atmospheres of icy moons

The processes of the formation and dynamics of tenuous gaseous envelopes of icy moons in giant-planet systems are considered. Tenuous exospheres with relatively dense surface layers are likely to form around more massive icy satellites, such as, for example, the Galilean satellites Europa and Ganymede in the Jovian system. Escaping exospheres are formed in the case of low-mass icy moons, as happens for the icy satellite Enceladus in the Saturnian system. The main parent component of such gaseous envelopes is water vapor, which enters into the atmosphere as a result of thermal degassing processes, nonthermal radiolysis, and other active processes and phenomena on the icy surface of a satellite. A numerical kinetic model has been developed to study on a molecular level the processes of the formation, chemical evolution, and dynamics of tenuous gaseous envelopes dominated mainly by H₂O. The ionization processes in such tenuous gaseous envelopes are caused by solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation and solar-wind and/or magnetospheric plasma. The primary processes when ultraviolet solar photons and plasma electrons affect the tenuous gas of the H₂O-dominated atmosphere are responsible for the chemical diversity of the gaseous envelopes of icy moons. Ionization chemistry, including ion-molecular reactions, dissociative recombination of molecular ions, and the reactions of the charge exchange with magnetospheric ions, is important for the formation of chemical diversity in gaseous envelopes of icy satellites. The model considered in the study was used to numerically simulate the formation and development of chemical diversity in the tenuous gaseous envelope of Enceladus. The numerical results were compared to the direct Cassini measurements during its close flyby near Enceladus.     

Magnetospheric environments of outer planet rings: Influence of Saturn's axially symmetric magnetic field

The Jovian and Uranian rings exist within severe energetic particle and plasma environments where magnetosphere-related losses of small ring particles and surface reflectance alteration by sputtering are likely to be important. In contrast, the main Saturnian rings exist within a zone where magnetospheric losses and surface alteration effects are negligible, primarily because of solid-body absorption of inwardly diffusing magnetospheric particles. It is shown here that solid-body absorption of radially diffusing ions is a much more efficient process in the inner Saturnian magnetosphere than in the inner Jovian and Uranian magnetospheres because of the near axial symmetry of the planetary magnetic field with respect to the rotational equatorial plane. This is especially true for continuous rings (as opposed to satellites) for which the approximate time scale against absorption is the particle bounce period in an axially symmetric field, whereas it is the particle drift period in an asymmetric field. Assuming comparable diffusion rates, inward transport of magnetospheric particles is much more strongly inhibited in the inner Saturnian magnetosphere than in the inner magnetospheres of Jupiter and Uranus. This remains true when only rings of comparable widths and optical depths are considered (e.g., the F ring at Saturn and the ϵ ring at Uranus). The most extreme possible consequence of this difference in solid-body absorption efficiency may have been the preferential development of a radially extensive, optically thick ring system at Saturn where magnetospheric losses are minimized in comparison to those at Jupiter and Uranus. A more definite consequence is that the Uranian rings are most probably directly exposed to nearly the same proton fluxes measured at Voyager 2's closest approach. Exposure of ring particle surfaces to radiation belt ion fluxes therefore remains as a viable explanation for the low albedos of the Uranian rings.     

Application of ion irradiation experiments to planetary surfaces in the Outer Solar System

Experimental results on the interaction between fast bombarding ions and solid targets simulating satellite surfaces in the Outer Solar System are reviewed. Applications to Jovian, Saturnian, Uranian, Neptunian, and Plutonian systems suggest the important role played by cosmic and magnetospheric ions in eroding material, in redistributing it on the surfaces of some objects, and in producing either thin or thick mantles of dark organics.     

The evolution of icy satellite interiors and surfaces

The satellites of the outer solar system planets are thought to be mixtures of ices and rocky material, in which decay of radioactive nuclides can lead to internal melting and solid-state convection. Time-dependent models indicate that melting will reach its maximum extent approximately 2.0 GYr after formation; bodies of radius <500 km will never melt, and those <750 km in radius will be totally refrozen by present. Surface water flows are not expected for bodies of <1500-km radius. However, even small (100 km) bodies may be unstable against solid-state convection, and their surfaces may show signs of tectonism. Other processes altering the surfaces include sublimation and photolysis of ices. Sublimation likely explains the absence of CH₄ ices on any Saturnian satellite except Titan; photolysis explains the absence of NH₃ ices on these bodies, and possibly the absence of water ice on the surface of Callisto. The photolysis rate of CH₄ also implies a crustal reservoir of CH₄ on Titan.     

Orbital evolution of the distant satellites of the giant planets

We study the evolution of several distant satellite orbits. These are the orbits (including the improved ones)of the recently discovered Neptunian satellites S/2002 N1, N2, N3, N4; S/2003 N1 and the orbits of Jovian, Saturnian, and Uranian satellites with librational variations in the argument of the pericenter: S/2001 J10 (Euporie), S/2003 J20; S/2000 S5 (Kiviuq), S/2000 S6 (Ijiraq), and S/2003 U3. The study is performed using mainly an approximate numerical-analytical method. We determine the extreme eccentricities and inclinations as well as the periods of the variations in the arguments of pericenters and longitudes of the ascending nodes on time intervals ～10⁵?10⁶ yr. We compare our results with those obtained by numerically integrating the rigorous equations of satellite motion on time intervals of the order of the circulation periods of the longitudes of the ascending nodes (10²?10³ yr).