Solar Irradiance Models and Measurements: A Comparison in the 220–240?nm wavelength band

Solar irradiance models that assume solar irradiance variations to be due to changes in the solar surface magnetic flux have been successfully used to reconstruct total solar irradiance on rotational as well as cyclical and secular time scales. Modelling spectral solar irradiance is not yet as advanced, and also suffers from a lack of comparison data, in particular on solar cycle time scales. Here, we compare solar irradiance in the 220–240?nm band as modelled with SATIRE-S and measured by different instruments on the UARS and SORCE satellites. We find good agreement between the model and measurements on rotational time scales. The long-term trends, however, show significant differences. Both SORCE instruments, in particular, show a much steeper gradient over the decaying part of cycle 23 than the modelled irradiance or that measured by UARS/SUSIM.     

Total Solar Irradiance Observations

The record of total solar irradiance (TSI) during the past 35?years has overlapping observations from space which can be merged to a composite, and three are available, namely the PMOD, the ACRIM and the IRMB composites. There are important differences between them, which are discussed in detail in order to find the best representation of solar variability during the last three cycles, for the following discussions of solar irradiance variability. Moreover, the absolute value of TSI from TIM on SORCE is 1,361?Wm^?2, substantially lower than the value 1,365?Wm^?2, which was observed by the classical radiometers. New results from specific experiments are now available, which are discussed in order to define the value to be used in, e.g., climate models. The most important issue regarding the recent TSI records is the low value observed during the minimum in 2009, which is 25% of a typical cycle amplitude lower than the value in 1996. The validity of this low value has been confirmed by comparing all existing TSI observations during cycle 23. On the other hand, activity indices, such as the sunspot number, the 10.7-cm radio flux (F10.7), the CaII and MgII indices and also the Ly-α irradiance or the frequency changes in low-order p modes, show a much smaller decreases relative to their respective typical cycle amplitude. It is most likely that an increasing contrast of the facular and network elements with decreasing magnetic field is responsible for this discrepancy. The value of TSI at minima is correlated with the open magnetic field of the Sun, B _R,?at minima. Using B _R at minima, interpolated linearly in between as a fourth component of a proxy model based on the photometric sunspot index and on the MgII index improves the explanation of the variance of TSI over the full period of the last three solar cycles to 84.7%. Results from other models are also discussed.     

地球同步轨道高能电子变化

结合小波分析及交叉小波分析方法,研究了地球同步轨道高能电子动态变化的多时间尺度结构,分析了电子通量在不同周期随着太阳风速、地磁指数D_st变化的具体特点.结果发现：（1）电子通量的长期变化受控于太阳风速,在太阳活动低值年,电子通量值高,具有明显的13.4天,27.4天及187天周期;交叉小波分析表明,电子通量的13.4天及27.4天周期受太阳风速周期变化信号的影响,187天周期变化受D_st指数周期变化信号的影响.（2）电子通量半年变化主要归因于太阳风的驱动作用,在每年的第100天及270左右达到两次峰值,峰值大小不对称,与D_st指数的谷值大小呈反比.（3）由于冕洞形成过程中的太阳风高速流影响,电子通量具有13.4及27.4天的周期,峰值水平受控于太阳风速结构.     

Correlation between Long-Term Variations in the Vertical Component of the Electric Field in Baikal and Solar Activity

The vertical component of the electric field along the surface–bottom baseline was measured for several years in the southwestern part of Baikal. The measurements revealed a correlation between long-term variations in the field that were interpreted as variations in the current in the hydrospheric segment of the global electric circuit with intermittent variations in the solar activity. However, the continuous measurement series were no longer than a year, which is shorter than the maximal quasi-period of the alternating variations. The first continuous two-year measurement series was made in 2014–2016. Its analysis shows quite strong variations with quasi-periods of up to 320 days, which correlate with variations in the solar X-ray flux. The effective delay of the correlation is about four days, which is evidence of an indirect effect of solar activity on the vertical current in the hydrosphere by rather slow atmospheric processes.     

赤道地区电离层foF2在第23/24太阳活动周极低年期间创造了极低纪录?

太阳辐射是电离层的电离源,强烈地调制电离层的变化.探索不同太阳辐射水平下的电离层状态,有助于认识电离层演变及其内在的基本物理过程.太阳活动在2008—2009年处于有记录以来的极低水平,研究电离层在此期间的变化及与其它太阳活动低年的差异是一个有益的课题.本文利用位于美洲扇区磁赤道地区Jicamarca台站(12.0°S, 283.2°E; dip 0.28°)测高仪观测的电离层F2层临界频率foF₂数据探讨赤道地区foF₂的行为.分别对第22/23太阳活动周低年(1996—1997)和第23/24活动周低年(2008—2009)的月中值、季节中值和滑动年均值进行分析,确认相比上一个太阳低年而言,在2008—2009年foF₂滑动年均值和不同季节中值在各个地方时均降低,而月中值存在降低和升高.对foF₂的时间尺度特性的分析发现,在本太阳周低年foF₂长时间尺度分量下降,而短时间尺度分量呈现不一致的变化.我们认为,现有文献报道给出2008—2009年与以往太阳活动低年对比结果不一致有可能归因于所用分析方法关注的时间尺度不相同.     

Thermische Energieflüsse an der Wasseroberfläche: Beispiel Sempachersee

Data collected every 20 minutes for 18 months by a meteorological buoy moored on Lake Sempach in Switzerland (maximum depth 86 m, surface area 14.1 km²) are used to calculate different processes contributing to the net heat flux between water and atmosphere. The processes considered are shortwave and longwave radiation, evaporation/condensation and sensible heat transfer. The temporal resolution of the measurements allows the evaluation of the processes occurring on three different time scales: diurnal variations, weather events of a few days and yearly cycles. The heat content of the lake is calculated from quasi-continuous measurements of water temperature at different depths. The yearly amplitude of the heat content is 1100·10⁶ J/m². Short-time variations of the heat flux determined from water temperature analysis agree well with the flux variations modeled using meteorological data. However, the latter generally underestimates the measured net heat flux in the long term. Wind measurements, together with the net heat flux, are used to calculate the Flux Richardson Number and the Monin-Obukov Length. Examples are given to show the predominant influence of the wind on the stratification of the upper water column and thus on the surface water temperature.      

Effects of short-term solar uv variability on the stratosphere

Changes in solar ultraviolet flux produce changes in ozone concentration in the upper stratosphere with associated radiative and dynamical effects. At low latitudes, the response of ozone mixing ratio to solar UV variations on the time scale of the solar rotation period is well characterized observationally. In addition, there is some provisional evidence for an ozone response at intermediate periods of 60-80 days. Current two-dimensional stratospheric models simulate the observed 27-day response amplitudes and phase lags with reasonable accuracy in the upper stratosphere. The observed response of total ozone on the 27-day time scale is also in approximate agreement with the same models although observed ozone sensitivities and phase lags are slightly larger than expected theoretically. Future studies of the 27-day response at higher latitudes and altitudes are needed to test more completely our understanding of the direct effects of solar UV variability on the middle atmosphere.     

Surface heat fluxes in the Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean

Estimates of the components of the surface heat flux in the Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean are presented for a 22-day period, together with a critical analysis of the errors. It is shown that the errors in latent heat, and solar and longwave radiation fluxes, dominate the net heat flux for this period. It is found that the net heat flux into the ocean over the 22-day period is not significantly different from zero. It is also demonstrated that because of the variability in daily averaged values of solar radiation and the latent heat of evaporation, a large number of independent flux measurements will be required to determine with confidence the climatological net heat flux in this region. The variability of latent fluxes over the 22-day period suggest that climatological estimates based on monthly mean observations may lead to a significant underestimate of the latent heat flux.     

与日夜交替线移动相关的中尺度电离层扰动GPS网观测

本文选取由国际GPS服务中心(IGS)提供的北美中纬度地区GPS网TEC观测数据,通过多通道最大熵频谱分析方法研究了2005年（太阳活动低年）地磁活动平静期间日出和日落时由于日夜交替线的移动而激发的中尺度电离层扰动(MSTID),并统计分析其季节变化特性.结果表明：(1) 日出或日落期间,在中纬度地区经常观测到由日夜交替线移动激发的中尺度电离层扰动.扰动主要沿日夜交替线运动方向传播,平均持续时间约2～3 h;振幅在0.2～0.8 TECU之间,水平波长,水平相速度和周期分别为300±150 km,150±80 m/s和25±15 min;(2) 由日夜交替线移动激发的中尺度电离层扰动在春秋分出现率较少;在夏季,扰动在黄昏时出现率达最大值,在日出后少量出现;而冬季则日出后的扰动效应更为明显.分析表明,在中纬地区,这种扰动出现率随季节的变化与不同季节的日出日落时刻太阳EUV辐射通量变化过程的快慢,以及电离层中离子损失过程快慢有关.     

利用重复测线校正海空重力仪格值及试验验证

通过分析海空重力测量系统误差的形成机理,我们发现海空重力仪格值标定误差是引起系统性测量偏差的主要因素之一.本文简要介绍了重力仪格值的标定方法,分析论证了格值标定的精度要求,提出了利用东西正反向重复测线检测校正海空重力仪格值的计算模型和补偿方法,分析讨论了该方法的校正精度及其适用条件,利用航空重力实际观测网数据对该方法的合理性和有效性进行了数值验证,证明该方法对消除海空重力测量系统性偏差具有显著作用.     

Solar EUV Flux Variations in 11–Year Solar Activity Cycle According to Measurements On-Board PROGNOZ Satellite Series, INTERBALL-1 and ELECTRO Satellites during 1978–1997 Period

The paper presents data on flux variations of ionizing EUV radiation for wavelengths shorter than 130 nm and in L-alpha hydrogen line on the basis of measurements performed on-board a Russian Earth-orbiting and interplanetary spacecrafts in the period since 1978 to 1997. These data were received by using common heritage instrumentation installed on four PROGNOZ satellites, INTERBALL-1, PHOBOS, and the geosynchronous meteorological satellite ELECTRO. Though the time series of observations is not continuous, it gives a possibility to estimate flux variations in certain periods of time and during 11–year cycle. During quiet periods of solar activity (except for flares) a level of diurnal variations is rather low, it being equal to about 3%. Radiation changes in L-alpha line from maximum to minimum in an 11–year cycle of solar activity achieves 200% and increases in the range of short waves. Data measured onboard the Russian satellites are compared with data obtained by Solar Mesospheric Explorer.     

Long term studies of equatorial spread F using the JULIA radar at Jicamarca

Jicamarca unattended long term investigations of the ionosphere and atmosphere radar observations of equatorial spread F (ESF) plasma irregularities made between August 1996 and April 2000 are analyzed statistically. Interpretation of the data is simplified by adopting a taxonomy of echo types which distinguishes between bottom-type, bottomside, topside, and post-midnight irregularities. The data reveal patterns in the occurrence of ESF in the Peruvian sector that are functions of season, solar flux, and geomagnetic activity. We confirm earlier work by Fejer et al. (J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 19,859) showing that the quiet-time climatology of the irregularities is strongly influenced by the climatology of the zonal ionospheric electric field. Under magnetically quiet conditions, increasing solar flux implies greater pre-reversal enhancement amplitudes and, consequently, irregularity appearances at earlier times, higher initial altitudes, and higher peak altitudes. Since the post-reversal westward background electric field also grows stronger with increasing solar flux, spread F events also decay earlier in solar maximum than in solar minimum. Variation in ESF occurrence during geomagnetically active periods is consistent with systematic variations in the electric field associated with the disturbance dynamo and prompt penetration described by Fejer and Scherliess (J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 24,047) and Scherliess and Fejer (J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 24,037). Quiet-time variability in the zonal electric field contributes significantly to variability in ESF occurrence. However, no correlation is found between the occurrence of strong ESF and the time history of the zonal electric field prior to sunset.     

Types of spectra of ion flux fluctuations in the solar wind and magnetosheath at the interface between inertial and dissipative ranges

This paper considers the features of turbulent characteristics of ion flux variations in the solar wind and magnetosheath at the scale of 0.01–10 Hz based on measurements on the BMSW plasma spectrometer (Plasma-F experiment) mounted on the Spektr-R satellite. A variability of types of fluctuation frequency spectra is shown. Fluctuation spectra with certain features in the transition region from the inertial to the dissipative range are selected (a sharp knee in the fluctuation spectrum, plateau and peak in the knee, and a nonlinear spectrum bend at high frequencies). The degree of difference between the observed spectra and the spectra characteristic of the developed isotropic turbulence in the Kolmogorov model is determined. The probability of observation of the spectra of certain types is estimated. The features of fluctuation spectra in the solar wind and magnetosheath are compared for each type of spectra.     

航空重力测量的系统误差补偿

基于航空重力测量的基本数学模型,详细分析了航空重力测量的系统误差来源.大致可将系统误差分为三类,即停机坪重力基准值、比力初值的观测误差,格值、交叉耦合系数、摆杆尺度因子的标定误差和水平加速度改正的模型化误差等.然后,对每类系统误差的量级及其补偿方法进行了研究,指出水平加速度改正是引起系统误差的主要因素之一.大同、哈尔滨和渤海湾航空重力测量的实测数据分析均表明,在各项系统误差尤其是水平加速度改正得到有效补偿后,航空重力与地面(或船测)参考值的系统误差将小于1×10^-5m·s^-2.     

Studying correlations between the coronal hole area,solar wind velocity,and local magnetic indices in the Canadian region during the decline phase of cycle 23

Geomagnetic disturbances in the Canadian region are compared with their solar and heliospheric sources during the decline phase of solar activity, when recurrent solar wind streams from low-latitude coronal holes were clearly defined. A linear correlation analysis has been performed using the following data: the daily and hourly indices of geomagnetic activity, solar wind velocity, and coronal hole area. The obtained correlation coefficients were rather low between the coronal hole areas and geomagnetic activity (0.17–0.48), intermediate between the coronal hole areas and the solar wind velocity (0.40–0.65), and rather high between the solar wind velocity and geomagnetic activity (0.50–0.70). It has been indicated that the correlation coefficient values can be considerably increased (by tens of percent in the first case and about twice in the second case) if variations in the studied parameters related to changes in the ionosphere (different illumination during a year) and variations in the heliolatitudinal shift of the coordinate system between the Earth, the Sun, and a spacecraft are more accurately taken into account.     

Quasi-biennial variations of the total solar flux: Their manifestation in variations of the stratospheric wind and the Earth’s rotation velocity

A detailed representation of variations of the total solar flux I has been obtained by analyzing the regular measurements of this flux by the Nimbus-7 and other spacecrafts. In particular, quasi-biennial variations (QBVs) of the monthly average value 〈I〉 and standard deviation sI within a month interval have been revealed. It is remarkable that the QBVs of sI almost coincide in shape with the QBVs of many solar activity and ionospheric indices, and the QBVs of 〈I〉 are almost in antiphase with the variations of sI. The manifestation of the QBVs of 〈I〉 in some processes on the Earth has been already revealed. A relation between the QBVs of 〈I〉 for solar radiation (according to the Nimbus-7 and ACRIM-2 data) and the QBVs of the zonal stratospheric wind near the equator, as well as the QBVs of the Earth’s rotation velocity, has been found. Many of the considered QBV-processes on the Earth are seemingly attributed to the variations of the total solar flux.     

Solar UV variability: Effects on stratospheric ozone,trace constituents and thermal structure

The effect of long-term (11-year solar cycle) solar UV variability on stratospheric chemical and thermal structure has been studied using a time-dependent one-dimensional model. Previous studies have suggested substantial variations in local and total ozone, and in stratospheric thermal structure from solar minimum to solar maximum. It is shown here that significant variations also occur in some of the trace constituents. Members of the HO _x family and N₂O exhibit the largest variations, and these changes, if detected, may provide additional means of verifying the presence of solar UV variability and its effects. Some of the species show large phase differences with the assumed solar flux variation. The role of chemical and transport time constants on the time variations of the trace species is examined. Comparisons with reported ozone and temperature data show reasonable agreement for the period 1960 to 1972.     

On the 18-day quasi-periodic oscillation in the ionosphere

The presence and persistence of an 18-day quasi-periodic oscillation in the ionospheric electron density variations were studied. The data of lower ionosphere (radio-wave absorption at equivalent frequency near 1 MHz), middle and upper ionosphere (critical frequencies f₀E and f₀F2) for the period 1970–1990 have been used in the analysis. Also, solar and geomagnetic activity data (the sunspot numbers Rz and solar radio flux F10.7 cm, and a_N index respectively) were used to compare the time variations of the ionospheric with the solar and geomagnetic activity data. Periodogram, complex demodulation, auto- and cross-correlation analysis have been used. It was found that 18-day quasi-periodic oscillation exists and persists in the temporal variations of the ionospheric parameters under study with high level of correlation and mean period of 18–19 days. The time variation of the amplitude of the 18-day quasi-periodic oscillation in the ionosphere seems to be modulated by the long-term solar cycle variations. Such oscillations exist in some solar and geomagnetic parameters and in the planetary wave activity of the middle atmosphere. The high similarities in the amplitude modulation, long-term amplitude variation, period range between the oscillation of investigated parameters and the global activity of oscillation suggests a possible solar influence on the 18-day quasi-periodic oscillation in the ionosphere.     

Investigating snowpack across scale in the northern Great Lakes–St. Lawrence forest region of Central Ontario,Canada

This study investigates scaling issues by evaluating snow processes and quantifying bias in snowpack properties across scale in a northern Great Lakes–St. Lawrence forest. Snow depth and density were measured along transects stratified by land cover over the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 winters. Daily snow depth was measured using a time‐lapse (TL) camera at each transect. Semivariogram analysis of the transect data was conducted, and no autocorrelation was found, indicating little spatial structure along the transects. Pairwise differences in snow depth and snow water equivalent (SWE) between land covers were calculated and compared across scales. Differences in snowpack between forested sites at the TL points corresponded to differences in canopy cover, but this relationship was not evident at the transect scale, indicating a difference in observed process across scale. TL and transect estimates had substantial bias, but consistency in error was observed, which indicates that scaling coefficients may be derived to improve point scale estimates. TL and transect measurements were upscaled to estimate grid scale means. Upscaled estimates were compared and found to be consistent, indicating that appropriately stratified point scale measurements can be used to approximate a grid scale mean when transect data are not available. These findings are important in remote regions such as the study area, where frequent transect data may be difficult to obtain. TL, transect, and upscaled means were compared with modelled depth and SWE. Model comparisons with TL and transect data indicated that bias was dependent on land cover, measurement scale, and seasonality. Modelled means compared well with upscaled estimates, but model SWE was underestimated during spring melt. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the spatial representativeness of in situ measurements and the processes those measurements represent when validating gridded snow products or assimilating data into models.     

Time-Variations of D-Region Electron Densities, and Comparisons With Model Computations

An extensive series of incoherent scatter studies of the ionospheric D-region was carried out at the Arecibo radar facility during 1978 and 1979. They included several full-day sequences of electron density measurements over a range of altitudes, and also included a sequence during the serendipitous occurrence of a large solar flare. For the solar flare event simultaneous data on solar X-ray fluxes in several wavelength bands were available from the GOES-2 and ISEE-3 satellites. In the course of development of a large ionospheric computer model at Los Alamos we have used the solar flare data as a reality check. The solar X-ray flux data were used as inputs for computing ionization rates. The model computer includes 999 chemical reactions, and also includes diffusion and transport processes. In the course of the flare studies we used the data comparisons to adjust the values of three chemical rate coefficients that were poorly known. With those adjustments the model computations fitted the data quite well. Subsequent to the flare analysis we have been using the same model with some minor updates to compute the expected diurnal variations of the ambient D-region under conditions chosen to match those existing at the times of the incoherent scatter measurements. Comparisons of the computations and the data will be shown, and the relative importance of the several separate ionization processes will be discussed. We also compare model results with experimental data on concentrations of NO.