Contribution of anaerobic microbial activity to natural attenuation of benzene in groundwater

Anaerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons, using a variety of terminal electron acceptors (TEAs), is increasingly being reported both in laboratory studies and in the field. Of all the petroleum hydrocarbons, benzene is considered the most problematical due to its high toxicity and relatively high aqueous solubility. These, combined with its peculiarly stable structure, mean that it has long been considered recalcitrant in all but aerobic conditions. There is now a small, but growing, literature to suggest that this may not in fact be the case. We present an assessment of the field, encompassing reviews up to 1997 and original papers published since then. It appears that benzene is indeed degraded anaerobically, but that organisms capable of doing so are not ubiquitous. In addition, benzene degradation may be competitively inhibited by the presence of more readily degraded compounds such as toluene. Certainly, the occurrence and rate of benzene attenuation under anaerobic conditions is far more site-specific than for other benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) compounds. We discuss a mathematical method for modelling redox-dependent, differential degradation rates.     

Assessment of natural attenuation of aromatic hydrocarbons in groundwater near a former manufactured-gas plant, South Carolina, USA

 Shallow, anaerobic groundwater near a former manufactured-gas plant (MGP) in Charleston, South Carolina, USA, contains mono- and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs and PAHs, respectively). Between 1994 and 1997, a combination of field, laboratory, and numerical-flow and transport-model investigations were made to assess natural attenuation processes affecting MAH and PAH distributions. This assessment included determination of adsorption coefficients (K _ad ) and first-order biodegradation rate constants (K _bio ) using aquifer material from the MGP site and adjacent properties. Naphthalene adsorption (K _ad =1.35×10^–7 m³/mg) to aquifer sediments was higher than toluene adsorption (K _ad =9.34×10^–10 m³/mg), suggesting preferential toluene transport relative to naphthalene. However, toluene and benzene distributions measured in January 1994 were smaller than the naphthalene distribution. This scenario can be explained, in part, by the differences between biodegradation rates of the compounds. Aerobic first-order rate constants of ¹⁴C-toluene, ¹⁴C-benzene, and ¹⁴C-naphthalene degradation were similar (–0.84, –0.03, and 0.88 day^–1, respectively), but anaerobic rate constants were higher for toluene and benzene (–0.002 and –0.00014 day^–1, respectively) than for naphthalene (–0.000046 day^–1). Both areal and cross-sectional numerical simulations were used to test the hypothesis suggested by these rate differences that MAH compounds will be contained relative to PAHs. Predictive simulations indicated that the distributions of toluene and benzene reach steady-state conditions before groundwater flow lines discharge to an adjacent surface-water body, but do discharge low concentrations of naphthalene. Numerical predictions were "audited" by measuring concentrations of naphthalene, toluene, and benzene at the site in early 1997. Measured naphthalene and toluene concentrations were substantially reduced and the areal extent of contamination smaller than was both observed in January 1994 and predicted for 1997. Measured 1997 benzene concentrations and distribution were shown to be relatively unchanged from those measured in 1994, and similar to predictions for 1997. Received: 26 June 1997 · Accepted: 25 August 1997     

In situ push-pull tests for the determination of TCE degradation and permanganate consumption rates

A simple, single-well push-pull test was conducted at a TCE-contaminated site to estimate the site-specific TCE degradation and permanganate (MnO₄⁻) consumption rate. Known quantities of a conservative tracer (Br⁻) and permanganate were rapidly injected into a saturated aquifer then periodically sampled during extraction from the same well. Concentrations of Br⁻, TCE, and MnO₄⁻ were measured; breakthrough curves (BTCs) for all species of solute were determined. Data analysis of BTCs for bromide and TCE showed that the first-order rate constant of TCE degradation by MnO₄⁻ is 1.67 ± 0.152 h⁻¹. Further, the in situ MnO₄⁻ demand rate by TCE and aquifer materials is estimated to be 0.54 ± 0.371 h⁻¹. This study demonstrates that in situ push-pull tests are useful and economical tools for field investigations to determine contaminant reaction and oxidant consumption rates, which may then be used to optimize groundwater remediation designs.     

Development of an apparatus to measure groundwater qualities in situ and to sample groundwater using boreholes

 To accurately measure the pH, Eh, EC and temperature of groundwater retrieved from boreholes, a deep groundwater sampling apparatus was developed which provided sensory measurements both in situ and in a flow-through cell at ground level. Under a pressure of 1×10⁶ Pa the in situ accuracy of the apparatus sensor was within the following limits: pH ±0.2, temperature ±0.1°C, Eh ±10 mV, and EC ±2.4%. The measuring and sampling of deep groundwater from a borehole of more than 1000 m in depth was performed continuously for 30 days. Values of pH were the same for the in situ sensor, the flow-through cell sensor and the laboratory measurements of the sampled water. At the beginning of the sampling period, Eh values of the in situ sensor indicated deep groundwater conditions. The apparatus is particularly useful for Eh measurement. Chemical composition and stable isotope ratios indicated that the groundwater sampled from more than 1000 m depth was a connate water with a chemical composition slightly different from seawater of the present time, and the groundwater retrieved from 800 m depth was a meteoric water. Natural radioactive elements are thought to be the origin of the tritium in the groundwater retrieved from the 1000 m depth. Received: 6 August 1996 / Accepted: 22 October 1996     

Estimation and inference in inverse methods for kinetic models of hydrocarbon generation

Procedures based on ordinary and generalized least of squares for the estimation of kinetic parameters in laboratory pyrolysis experiments are compared. When the data consist of measurements on the degree of chemical reaction through time for a number of temperatures, a single regression procedure is preferred to the two-stage regression alternative. Methods are developed for the construction of confidence intervals for calibration curves used to infer formation temperature on the basis of the unreacted fraction of source material.     

浅层地下水氯代烃污染天然衰减速率的估算

天然衰减恢复技术是恢复和控制浅层地下水氯代烃污染的技术之一,如何简便获取可靠的氯代烃衰减速率常数是该技术应用的一个关键。趋势线分析方法是一种简便有效的方法,在污染羽状体稳定的条件下,通过地下水流向上至少3口监测井的资料,能够比较准确地估算出污染物的天然衰减速率常数和生物降解速率常数。某氯代烃污染典型区的应用实例研究表明,该区四氯乙烯(PCE)的天然衰减速率常数和生物降解速率常数分别为0·000925d-1和0·000537d-1,证实该区浅层地下水中的PCE存在天然生物降解,但降解速率比较缓慢。忽略吸附作用的天然衰减容量计算所得出的天然衰减速率常数明显小于实际结果,说明尽管典型区包气带及含水层介质的有机碳含量很少,但它们对PCE的吸附作用不容忽视。     

Biodegradability of trimethylbenzene isomers under the strictly anaerobic conditions in groundwater contaminated by gasoline

Trimethylbenzene (TMB), as a constituent of gasoline, is often expected to be used as a conservative tracer in anaerobic BTEX-contaminated groundwater site to correct for attenuation due to dispersion, dilution and sorption along a flow path. To evaluate the suitability of using TMB as a tracer and to better understand biodegradability of TMB in contaminated groundwater by gasoline under anaerobic conditions, laboratory microcosms were conducted with mixed nitrate/iron/sulfate electron-acceptor amendments, using aquifer materials collected from Canadian Forces Base (CFB), Borden, Ontario, Canada. The results showed that under denitrifying conditions, biodegradation of 1,3,5-TMB, 1,2,4-TMB and 1,2,3-TMB were relatively slow and after 204 days of incubation approximately 27, 24, and 16% of the initial concentrations, respectively, were degraded in the microcosms. Under sulfate-reducing conditions, TMB isomers were recalcitrant. In contrast, significant biodegradation of TMB was observed under iron-reducing conditions. 1,3,5-TMB, 1,2,4-TMB and 1,2,3-TMB were degraded to 44, 47, and 24% of initial concentrations with first-order biodegradation rate constants of 0.003, 0.006 and 0.013 d⁻¹, respectively. This study indicates that TMB biodegradation is insignificant under nitrate and sulfate-reducing conditions but significant under iron-reducing conditions. Therefore, the use of TMB as a tracer for interpreting removal of other biodegradable gasoline constituents such as BTEX requires caution, especially in the presence of iron-reducing conditions.     

华北平原地下水补给量计算分析

采用溴示踪法研究华北平原山前冲积平原和中部平原有灌溉和无灌溉区域的地下水补给,得到研究区平均地下水补给量为126.10 mm,平均补给系数为0.185 2,有灌溉实验点的补给量和补给系数大于无灌溉实验点。同时对示踪剂运移深度和含水量分布、降雨灌溉量和地下水埋深等影响因素进行分析。将各实验点计算结果与国内有关学者采用示踪剂法所得到的补给系数进行对比分析,论证了研究结果的可靠性,此研究成果可为华北平原地下水资源分析提供重要参考。     

In situ anaerobic degradation of petroleum alkanes in marine sediments: preliminary results

The degradation of acyclic petroleum hydrocarbons was studied during a 24-month experiment in Mediterranean coastal sediments (Gulf of Fos). Sediment cores entirely contaminated with oil (Arabian Light Crude Oil) were incubated in situ. The use of conservative tracers of sediment's particles reworking (luminophores) allowed the distinction of the reworked layer from the anoxic deeper sediments. Using the 17α,21βC₃₀ hopane (C₃₀H) as an inert internal reference, we could demonstrate that, after 24 months of experiment, acyclic petroleum hydrocarbons can be degraded under natural anaerobic conditions. The reactivity of individual alkanes appeared to depend on their chemical structure. To cite this article: D. Massias et al., C. R. Geoscience 335 (2003).To cite this article: D. Massias et al., C. R. Geoscience 335 (2003).     

Arsenic mobilization in an oxidizing alkaline groundwater: Experimental studies,comparison and optimization of geochemical modeling parameters

Arsenic (As) mobilization and contamination of groundwater affects millions of people worldwide. Progress in developing effective in-situ remediation schemes requires the incorporation of data from laboratory experiments and field samples into calibrated geochemical models.In an oxidizing aquifer where leaching of high pH industrial waste from unlined surface impoundments led to mobilization of naturally occurring As up to 2 mg L⁻¹, sequential extractions of solid phase As as well as, batch sediment microcosm experiments were conducted to understand As partitioning and solid-phase sorptive and buffering capacity. These data were combined with field data to create a series of geochemical models of the system with modeling programs PHREEQC and FITEQL. Different surface complexation modeling approaches, including component additivity (CA), generalized composite (GC), and a hybrid method were developed, compared and fitted to data from batch acidification experiments to simulate potential remediation scenarios. Several parameters strongly influence the concentration of dissolved As including pH, presence of competing ions (particularly phosphate) and the number of available sorption sites on the aquifer solids. Lowering the pH of groundwater to 7 was found to have a variable, but limited impact (<63%) on decreasing the concentration of dissolved As. The models indicate that in addition to lowering pH, decreasing the concentration of dissolved phosphate and/or increasing the number of available sorption sites could significantly decrease the As solubility to levels below 10 μg L⁻¹. The hybrid and GC modeling results fit the experimental data well (NRMSE<10%) with reasonable effort and can be implemented in further studies for validation.     

Effects of natural attenuation processes on groundwater contamination caused by abandoned waste sites in Berlin

The aim of this research project is to identify, characterize and quantify natural attenuation (NA) processes in groundwater affected by emissions of abandoned waste disposal sites in Berlin-Kladow/Gatow, Germany. It is part of the funding priority called KORA established by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) to explore the extent to which NA can be used for remedial purposes for varied forms of soil and groundwater contamination. Information on the emission behaviour of individual parameters is generated on the basis of hydrogeochemical comparison of 20 years old and new data. Using groundwater-modelling and CFC-analysis, information on the transport and retention of pollutants in groundwater is compiled. The microbial colonization of contaminated aquifers is characterized by molecular biological methods [polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)] to differentiate between contaminated and not contaminated zones.     

Estimation of transport hydraulic parameters in loessic sediment, Argentina: Application of column tests

Dispersivity and porosity parameters needed to simulate flow and non-reactive transport were calculated and validated for loess-like sediments of the Pampean aquifer located in southeastern Buenos Aires province, Argentina, using infiltration experiments in laboratory columns filled with selected undisturbed sediment. To obtain values for these parameters, the experimental curves of arrival for chloride were visually adjusted to the curves obtained from numerical simulation using PHREEQC 2.0. Visual adjustment consisted of trying different parameter values until the most representative one was obtained. The best adjustment was obtained for dispersivity and porosity values of 0.01 m and 0.35, respectively. Since analytical solutions for the flow and transport equations are applicable to simplified cases such as this, an attempt was made to adjust the parameters automatically, using a model based on this type of solution. This automated analytical solution was developed using the Fortran programming language, and the automatic parameter calibration was achieved by minimizing the distance between the observed and calculated values of two parameters. The automated technique gave values of 0.0084 m and 0.39 for dispersivity and porosity, respectively. The sediments studied here constitute the uppermost unit of the Pampean aquifer. Given the relevance of this layer and the growing anthropic influence on it, parameter quantification is important for both laboratory tests and for hydrogeochemical simulations that investigate contaminant transport.

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Resumen Se han obtenido los parámetros hidráulicos dispersividad y porosidad efectiva para sedimentos loessoides del acuífero denominado Pampeano cuya extensión abarca casi todo el sector central de la República Argentina. Los sedimentos estudiados en este trabajo se localizan en el sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Los parámetros fueron calculados y validados mediante la obtención de curvas de arribo de cloruro en ensayos en columnas de laboratorio con el sedimento no perturbado, y su ajuste visual a curvas obtenidas en modelos numéricos con el programa PHREEQC 2.0. Los mejores ajustes se alcanzaron con valores de porosidad y dispersividad de 0.01 y 0.35 respectivamente. Asimismo, se implementó una solución analítica del problema en código FORTRAM para lograr el ajuste automático de estos dos parámetros mediante la minimización de las distancias en función de los dos parámetros. Los valores obtenidos fueron: dispersividad 0.0084 m y porosidad efectiva 0.39. Los resultados fueron validados mediante la realización de nuevos ensayos y ajustes numéricos. Los sedimentos aquí estudiados son de importancia por constituir la unidad mas superficial del sistema acuífero Pampeano, la cual es usualmente explotada por perforaciones domiciliarias. La cuantificación de sus parámetros hidráulicos es necesaria para ensayos de laboratorio y simulaciones hidroquímicas orientadas al estudio de la contaminación.

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Résumé Les paramètres de dispersivité et de porosité nécessaires à la simulation des écoulements et des transports non-réactifs, ont été calculés et validés pour des sédiments loessiques de laquifère Pampéien dans le Sud-Est de la province de Buenos Aires, Argentine, au moyen dexpériences dinfiltration sur colonnes expérimentales remplies du sédiment non remanié. Pour obtenir les valeurs des paramètres, les courbes expérimentales de larrivée du chlore (élément conservatif) ont été visuellement calibrées sur les courbes obtenues par la simulation numérique sur Phreeqc 2.0.3 Lajustement visuel consistait à tester différents paramètres jusquà trouver le plus représentatif. Le meilleur ajustement était atteint avec des dispersivités et des porosités respectivement de lordre de 0.01 m et 0.35 m. Dés lors que la solution analytique de lécoulement et du transport est applicable dans des cas simplifiés comme celui-ci, il a également été opté dajuster automatiquement les paramètres, en utilisant un programme Fortran ; le calibrage automatique a été obtenu en minimisant la distance fonction des deux paramètres. Les valeurs obtenues ont été de 0.0084 m et 0.39 pour la dispersivité et la porosité. Le sédiment étudié ici constitue lunité supérieure de laquifère. Cette couche est primordiale notamment du point de vue de lactivité anthropique qui est menée dessus ; la quantification des paramètres de transport est importante pour les tests en laboratoire et les simulations hydrogéochimiques orientées vers les études de transport de soluté.

     

高盐强酸性地下水中复合苯系污染物原位芬顿氧化实验研究

在原位氧化过程中,实际场地地下水和含水介质的物化特征是影响氧化效果的重要因素,而目前对此影响的研究较少。以某场地实际高盐强酸性复合苯系污染地下水为研究对象,以地下水中2-硝基-4-甲氧基苯胺（2-nitro-4-methoxyaniline,2-N）和3-硝基-4-甲氧基苯胺（3-nitro-4-methoxyaniline,3-N）为特征污染物,探究芬顿（Fenton）试剂原位氧化特征,并研究液相环境因素（初始H2O2浓度、初始Fe2+浓度、初始pH值、初始醋酸（Acetic acid,HAc）浓度、初始 < span class="inline-formula-span" > < span class="inline-formula-span" > < span class="inline-formula-span" > ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-}$ < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181048.png'/ > < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181048.png'/ > < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181048.png'/ > 浓度）以及含水层介质对Fenton法去除2-N和3-N的影响。结果显示：（1）Fenton法去除2-N和3-N效果显著,且在初始液相条件为c（H2O2）=7 mmol/L、c（Fe2+）=4 mmol/L、pH=4、c（HAc）=0 mg/L和c（ < span class="inline-formula-span" > < span class="inline-formula-span" > < span class="inline-formula-span" > ${\rm{SO}}_4^{2-} $ < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181118.png'/ > < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181118.png'/ > < /span > < img text_id=' class='formula-img' style='display:none;' src='202012021_Z-20210203181118.png'/ > ）=0 mmol/L时去除效果最佳;（2）各因素对Fenton法氧化2-N和3-N的影响不同,加入H2O2和Fe2+使2-N和3-N去除率上升,增大HAc浓度使2-N和3-N去除率下降;（3）含水层介质对2-N和3-N具有一定吸附性,且对3-N的吸附性强于2-N,二者在本实验中最大吸附态占比分别为29%和42%,而吸附态的存在会抑制Fenton法对2-N和3-N的去除;（4）矿物分析结果显示介质含有少量黄铁矿,在硫酸环境下,介质腐蚀溶解释放Fe2+,在达到一定浓度后,无需额外添加Fe2+即可完成Fenton反应进而去除2-N和3-N。     

New method for in situ characterization of loose material for landslide mapping purpose

The assessment of grain size distribution and plasticity of loose geological material, during in situ geological investigations, is not obvious. Visual appreciation allows an approximative quantification of the coarse granulometric fractions, but not of the fine ones. Field soils determination methods suggested until now, are visual and tactile tests leading to a very rough estimate, which is only qualitative and not very reproducible. The new proposed field test (GEOLEP method) allows a quick quantification of the fine fraction of loose material. It allows the determination of the sand fraction (fine and medium grained sands) as well as the methylene blue value of the samples. The necessary equipment to perform this test is light and compact and the time needed to analyze one sample is approximately 15 min. Thus it is also possible to carry out numerous measurements in one day. The calibrations were carried out on a selection of 13 natural samples, chosen for their representativeness of the typical alpine quaternary deposits. The results obtained with GEOLEP method are relevant compared with standardized laboratory tests; the obtained correlation indexes are of 73% for the comparison with laboratory stain test results and of 89% with a laboratory method using a similar procedure than the field test. The correlation we performed with Atterberg's limits tests shows that a rough approximation of plasticity index can also be obtained (R² = 75%). This method thus brings a new tool which should allow taking into account the lithological factor (by some quantitative and representative variables) in a reliable way for the evaluation of landslide hazards.     

Correlations between the in situ acoustic properties and geotechnical parameters of sediments in the Yellow Sea,China

Knowledge about the marine sediment acoustic properties is a key to understanding wave propagation in sediments and is very important for military oceanography and ocean engineering. We developed a hydraulic-drived self-contained in situ sediment acoustic measurement system, and measured for the first time the in situ acoustic properties of sediments on 78 stations in the Yellow Sea, China, by employing this system. The relationships between the in situ measured acoustic properties and the onboard or laboratory determined geotechnical parameters were analyzed. Porosity was found to be the dominant factor in reducing velocity in a quadratic fashion; velocity showed an increment with bulk density and a decrement with mean grain size and clay content both with a nonlinear dependence; acoustic attenuation showed a bell-shaped correlation with porosity and mean grain size but reduced with clay content of the sediments. The attenuation results indicate that intergrain friction rather than viscous interactions between pore fluid and solid grains is the dominant loss mechanism in our marine sediments. The relationships established would be used to predict the geotechnical parameters from in situ measured acoustic properties and vice versa, as well as being an indicator of the seafloor processes, potential gas bubbles hazard and gas hydrates resources or other suitable targets of acoustic surveys.     

铁还原地下水环境中微生物降解苯和甲苯的碳源 专一性分析

文中研究在粒状铁化学还原三氯乙烯渗透反应格栅和生物降解苯和甲苯渗透反应格栅的联合格栅技术中,下游生物降解格栅中铁还原环境下微生物对苯和甲苯的生物降解。通过模拟粒状铁渗透反应格栅下游铁还原环境,主要研究微生物以苯、甲苯作为碳源时,对碳源的专一性。通过批实验发现,对于分别用苯和甲苯培养驯化的微生物,互换碳源后,微生物对2 000.00μg/L苯和甲苯的生物降解半衰期分别由之前的1.0和1.5 d减少到0.7和1.0 d,互换碳源后苯和甲苯的去除率分别增加38%和32%。在粒状铁渗透反应格栅下游生物降解渗透反应格栅中,微生物在铁还原环境下以苯、甲苯作为碳源时对碳源没有专一性,苯和甲苯可以同时被生物降解去除。     

高地应力区砂岩在卸荷条件下的变形参数劣化试验研究

以锦屏某高边坡砂岩所赋存的高地应力环境为基础,开展峰前卸围压力学特性试验,研究了应力-应变全过程曲线、变形特征及参数劣化效应。试验结果表明,相对于加载试验,岩样卸荷破坏表现出明显的脆性特征,相同初始围压下卸荷破坏所需偏应力较加载试验少;卸荷过程横向应变和体积应变急剧增大,卸荷方向表现出明显的扩容特征;当初始围压小于某一值（30 MPa）,岩样破坏所需卸荷量随初始围压增大而增大,当初始围压达到一定值（40 MPa时）,脆性特征更加明显,很少的卸荷量即可引起岩样破坏。以表征岩石卸荷程度的卸荷量H为参变量,分别对高、低围压下卸荷过程中变形参数（变形模量和泊松比）随卸荷量变化关系进行拟合,得到高、低地应力区卸荷过程中变形劣化参数的关系式。试验结果和计算方法对高应力区边坡开挖的稳定性评价具有一定指导意义。     

Natural background levels and threshold values of monitored parameters in the Cambrian-Vendian groundwater body,Estonia

The Cambrian-Vendian groundwater body plays an important role in drinking water supply of capital Tallinn and other settlements in northern Estonia. Water quality in this deep-seated confined groundwater body is influenced by the intrusion of present-day seawater and pumping-induced upward migration of deeper saline groundwater. The aim of this study is to evaluate the threshold values applying the methodology worked out within the EU 6th FP project “Background criteria for the identification of groundwater thresholds (BRIDGE)” and to compare the results with the values proposed by local authorities. A database containing 250 monitoring points was completed and used for the calculation of natural background levels (as the 90 and 97.7 percentile) in groundwater. The calculation of threshold values is based on natural background levels and reference values. In case of Cambrian-Vendian groundwater body the receptor is drinking water, thus limit values set by Estonian drinking water standard were used as reference values. The threshold values proposed by local authorities are more or less the same as calculated by BRIDGE methodology. Exceptionally different values are derived in case of chloride and ammonium.     

Mobility of heavy metals in harbour sediments: an environmental aspect for the reuse of contaminated dredged sediments

Different methods to determine the source strength of two harbour sediment fractions were applied and are discussed with a focus on As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn. Four different batch experiments were performed with both the sandy and the silty fractions of harbour sediments sampled at the disposal site for dredged material in Bremen Seehausen, north Germany. In addition to the batch experiments a modified centrifugation tube was used in order to obtain pore water from the unsaturated silty fraction. Column experiments were run with the sandy fraction of the material under saturated and unsaturated conditions, irrigated with artificial acid rain water. The results show that the legal threshold value applying to Mo and Pb is not exceeded in any of the methods applied to the sandy or the silty fractions. As for the sandy fraction, Cr and Co were also below this limit. Cd, Ni, Cu and Zn exceeded the threshold values in some of the batch experiments applied to both fractions, depending on the pH value and the elution agent used in the experiment. All results obtained from saturated column leaching were below the respective threshold values; however, it should be noted that the pH was between 7 and 8 throughout the entire experiment. This pH also applied to the unsaturated column, with the exception of the first flush. This first sample had a pH value of 3.8, which was due to sulphide oxidation at the beginning of the experiment and led to strong leaching of all the elements under study. As a consequence, arsenic, Cu and Ni values exceeded their respective threshold values.     

Pumping decisions for sustainable development of groundwater resources in areas of grassland degradation: a case study in Lanqi Banner, Inner Mongolia, China

The best planting alternatives for satisfying high water use demands of forage and fodder crops in a region of Inner Mongolia, China, were determined by a multiobjective distributed-parameter groundwater management model. These alternatives took account of different cropping patterns and pumping decisions associated with both temporal and spatial aspects of water allocation. The model was developed for phreatic, homogenous, and isotropic aquifers using the response matrix technique of quadratic programming theory and, in this case, using the alternative direction implicit (ADI) scheme. Model solutions using effective rainfall with a probability of 50%, show that average water table drawdown in the planning period (2006–2017) is 0.22 m and the groundwater fluctuation in each pumping well is very low. In order to evaluate the pumping decisions under an effective rainfall with a probability of 75%, a sensitive analysis was also conducted. Analysis shows that it is useful to apply the results from the proposed model to control the landscape degradation due to overgrazing and overpumping activities.