Three-dimensional numerical modelling of falling rock protection barriers

This paper presents a new numerical strategy for the design and verification of flexible falling rock barriers: passive protection measures for risk mitigation of potentially unstable rock slopes. The key point of the proposed approach is that notwithstanding the complexity of the simulated phenomenon, the resulting highly non-linear, dynamic model is simple and produces an accurate prediction of all the relevant parameters for barrier design, such as anchorage forces, net panel elongations and residual heights.The modelling procedure has been assessed using detailed experimental data obtained from a set of full-scale tests on three barrier prototypes with various energy absorption capacities (5000 kJ, 3000 kJ and 500 kJ). By comparison with the experimental results, the numerical model has shown to be reliable in capturing very accurately the barrier response to a block impact. Consequently, this method can be extended to investigate the behaviour of flexible falling rock protection barriers under conditions different from those encountered in full-scale tests. Therefore, the numerical procedure can be regarded as an effective tool used for designing and testing these structures.     

Perforation of Flexible Rockfall Barriers by Normal Block Impact

Flexible rockfall barriers are a common form of protection against falling blocks of rock and rock fragments (rockfall). These barriers consist of a system of cables, posts, and a mesh, and their capacity is typically quantified in terms of the threshold of impact (kinetic) energy at which the barrier fails. This threshold, referred to here as the “critical energy,” is often regarded as a constant. However, several studies have pointed out that there is no single representative value of critical energy for a given barrier. Instead, the critical energy decreases as the block size decreases, a phenomenon referred to as the “bullet effect.” In this paper, we present a simple analytical model for determining the critical energy of a flexible barrier. The model considers a block that impacts normally and centrally on the wire mesh, and rather than incorporate the structural details of the cables and posts explicitly, the supporting elements are replaced by springs of representative stiffness. The analysis reveals the dependence of the critical energy on the block size, as well as other relevant variables, and it provides physical insight into the impact problem. For example, it is shown that bending of the wire mesh during impact reduces the axial force that can be sustained within the wires, thus reducing the energy that can be absorbed. The formulas derived in the paper are straightforward to use, and the analytical predictions compare favorably with data available in the literature.     

On the role of sphericity of falling rock clusters—insights from experimental and numerical investigations

In this study, the dynamic behavior of rock clusters falling on rough slopes and impacting a vertical barrier is investigated experimentally and numerically using discrete element analysis. A specially designed laboratory setup that involves a flume of adjustable slope lined with a bumpy surface and equipped with an instrumented wall at the toe is used in the experimental investigation. The velocity profiles and impact forces were measured for three inclination angles using two different rock clusters. Three-dimensional discrete element analysis is then conducted to investigate the mechanical behavior of the rockfall and examine the role of sphericity of the rock cluster on the overall behavior of the system. This was achieved by explicitly simulating the complex shapes of the used rocks and the rough surface of the slope. The material coefficient of friction was measured using heap tests, and the results are compared with those obtained numerically using four different particle sphericities. Conclusions are made regarding the effect of slope inclination angle and the volume of the cluster on the impact forces exerted on rigid barriers. This study suggests that rock sphericity plays important roles on the dynamic behavior of the system and should be taken into consideration in simulating rockfall problems.     

The effect of surface irregularities on a falling rock motion

This laboratory study seeks to investigate the effect of surface irregularities on the motion characteristics of a falling rock. The irregularly-shaped surfaces of greywacke with a range of joint roughness coefficient (JRC) from 2 to 18 were used in an experimental setup where a falling rock was dropped from a height of 110 cm. A high-speed camera was utilised to capture the trajectory of the falling rock upon its impact with the rock surface. The data from 287 tests were statistically analysed to determine the dominant type of motion and to establish relationships between JRC and the coefficient of restitution (CoR). The effect of surface roughness was seen in different modes of motion of the falling rock with more irregular surfaces often produced ‘sliding’ or ‘rolling’ instead of ‘bouncing’. The obtained data indicated that the rock surface roughness did not seem to have a significant effect on CoR; however, it affected the rebound angle of the falling rock.     

落石冲击混凝土棚洞力学特性研究

落石冲击棚洞结构作用过程复杂,缺乏统一的落石冲击力表达式。首先,将落石简化为刚性球体,基于Hertz接触理论,推导得到落石冲击力半正弦算法的理论表达式,考虑落石冲击下棚洞的非弹性特征,根据落石与材料碰撞过程中落石加速度曲线特征,采用函数拟合法推导得到落石法向冲击下其冲击力的理论计算方法;然后,基于ANSYS/LS-DYNA软件建立落石冲击棚洞数值计算模型,研究不同冲击速度下落石冲击棚洞动力特征;最后,与现存常见的多种方法进行对比,得出以下结论：Hertz半正弦法得到的落石冲击力远大于函数拟合法和数值法,而函数拟合法和数值法得到的落石冲击力时程曲线相接近,表明函数拟合法更能反映落石与棚洞接触碰撞动力关系;对比其他计算方法可以得到,Hertz算法适用于分析无能量损失下的弹性碰撞问题,而Logistic算法适用于材料大塑性变形的情况,弹塑性接触理论结果和动力有限元结果存在差异,而采用函数拟合推导的计算方法得到的落石最大冲击力和落石冲击作用时间与动力有限元法更接近,更能反映落石冲击棚洞动力响应特征,推导的落石冲击力计算方法可为工程实践中棚洞防护设计提供理论参考。     

滚石冲击荷载下棚洞结构动力响应

钢筋混凝土棚洞结构是西部滚石灾害多发区最为有效的滚石防护结构,一般通过在棚洞顶部铺设一定厚度的砂砾石垫层来达到缓冲吸能的目的。在棚洞结构设计中,确定滚石冲击力大小是关键,而目前国内外尚无合理的计算公式,严重地影响了滚石棚洞结构工程应用。由于滚石冲击能量大,冲击时间短暂,涉及到结构大变形和复杂的能量转换关系,因而滚石冲击荷载下棚洞结构的动力响应研究难度较大。以实际滚石棚洞结构为原型,采用动力有限元对滚石冲击过程进行了数值仿真,研究滚石在不同冲击角度下棚洞结构的动力力学响应,为滚石防护工程设计提供理论基础。     

控爆技术、无声破碎和被动防护网在危岩排险中的综合应用探讨

危岩是三峡库区主要地质灾害之一,现呈现出多发、频发的趋势。危岩的分类为坠落式、倾倒式和滑塌式。危岩的综合治理措施有清除、支撑、锚固、拦截、封填、灌浆、排水、防护网等。控爆技术,包括洞室控爆技术、深孔控爆技术、光面爆破、预裂爆破、浅眼循环控爆技术等,以及无声破碎和防护网,均适用于危岩排险工程。危岩的爆破不同于一般的工程爆破,针对不同的危岩类型采用不同的控爆技术和综合应用措施,可以充分保护母岩,稳定岩体,达到应急排险的目的。     

Experiments and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis of a Wire-Rope Rockfall Protective Fence

The imperative need to protect structures in mountainous areas against rockfall has led to the development of various protection methods. This study introduces a new type of rockfall protection fence made of posts, wire ropes, wire netting and energy absorbers. The performance of this rock fence was verified in both experiments and dynamic finite element analysis. In collision tests, a reinforced-concrete block rolled down a natural slope and struck the rock fence at the end of the slope. A specialized system of measuring instruments was employed to accurately measure the acceleration of the block without cable connection. In particular, the performance of two energy absorbers, which contribute also to preventing wire ropes from breaking, was investigated to determine the best energy absorber. In numerical simulation, a commercial finite element code having explicit dynamic capabilities was employed to create models of the two full-scale tests. To facilitate simulation, certain simplifying assumptions for mechanical data of each individual component of the rock fence and geometrical data of the model were adopted. Good agreement between numerical simulation and experimental data validated the numerical simulation. Furthermore, the results of numerical simulation helped highlight limitations of the testing method. The results of numerical simulation thus provide a deeper understanding of the structural behavior of individual components of the rock fence during rockfall impact. More importantly, numerical simulations can be used not only as supplements to or substitutes for full-scale tests but also in parametric study and design.     

清江茅坪滑坡白岩危岩体崩塌现场测量及其分析

位于茅坪滑坡体后缘的白岩危岩体于2002年8月24日发生了大规模的崩塌。崩落的块石落在滑坡体上，对滑坡体产生了加载作用，影响了该滑坡体的稳定性。为研究茅坪滑坡体的稳定性，有必要弄清滑坡体上崩落块石的堆积情况。论文在对清江隔河岩水库白岩危岩体崩塌现场调查的基础上，估算了崩塌岩体的体积，实地测量了岩体崩塌后堆积体表面块石的尺寸以及各块石空间位置坐标。对测量的结果进行了统计分析。根据所测量的块石尺寸、得到了崩落岩体的块体大小级配累积曲线图和各块石尺度出现的概率，从而阐明了各尺度崩落块石组合情况。根据各块石尺寸和各块石空间位置坐标、分析得到不同尺寸崩落块石落在滑坡体上的空间分布规律，从而为茅坪滑坡的进一步研究打下了基础。     

Overturning stability of L-shaped rigid barriers subjected to rockfall impacts

Reinforced concrete barriers are commonly used as defence measures in hilly areas to contain falling boulders and landslide debris. These barriers are conventionally designed to satisfy the conditions of force and momentum equilibrium with a factor of safety. A major limitation of this approach is that the inertial resistance of the barrier is neglected such that the design could be over-conservative. This paper presents a novel displacement-based approach for the assessment of overturning stability of rigid L-shaped barriers subjected to rockfall impacts. Analytical solutions, which are derived based on conservation of momentum and energy, are used to take into account the contributions of the self-weight and, thus, the inertial resistance of the barrier in resisting an impact. The actual amount of energy transferred from the impacting boulder to the barrier is considered by including the coefficient of restitution between the two objects. The accuracy of the analytical solutions has been confirmed by laboratory impact experiments. Numerical assessments conducted using the new solutions indicate that a reasonably sized rigid barrier, due to its own inertial resistance, may adequately withstand the impact action of a heavy boulder rolling down a hillslope without relying on any anchorage to its support. A range of geometric design of the barriers with L-shaped cross sections also has been considered and analysed. The new approach presented in this paper is easy to apply in practice and will be useful for engineers designing concrete barriers as passive rockfall mitigation measures.     

双聚防塌冲洗液体系在GHW2井中的应用

鄂尔多斯盆地伊陕斜坡GHW2井是在陕西府谷庙沟门施工的一口页岩气探井,地层主要为千5、盒8、山西组、太原组、本溪组,钻进过程中坍塌掉块、破碎严重。针对现场破碎、坍塌掉块及水敏性地层钻探遇到的主要难题,研制了双聚防塌冲洗液体系。该体系具有护壁性、抑制性和胶结性。通过在GHW2井中的应用,取得了较好的护壁、护心效果,有效地保证了该项目的顺利施工。     

青藏铁路多年冻土地区碎石护坡路基非线性分析

为了研究碎石护坡对冻土区路基温度场的影响,以青藏铁路试验段现场观测的气候和地质资料为上边界条件,运用带相变瞬态温度场有限元数值解法,对不同厚度的碎石护坡路基进行了分析。结果表明:粒径为10 cm的碎石护坡对多年冻土区路基的稳定性有保护作用;碎石护坡对路基坡脚附近地温影响较大,采用碎石护坡对防止路基纵向裂缝的产生有一定的作用;实际应用中碎石层厚度不能太厚。     

Localization in rate-dependent shearing deformation, with application to torsion testing

The localization of plastic deformation in rock is of particular interest in geology in connection with the formation of “ductile” shear zones. It is commonly conjectured that strain softening, as evidenced by a falling stress–strain curve at constant strain rate, is likely to lead to strain localization. Yet observations in torsion tests at constant twist rate fail to show such an effect. However, a more sophisticated analysis using the theory of Fressengeas and Molinari (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 1987, 35, 185–211) for material showing strain-rate dependence of the flow stress does show that, when the boundary conditions are specified in terms of displacements, no localization is predicted in case of strain softening. In contrast, if the boundary conditions are set in terms of forces, localization can be expected for a strain softening material. This prediction needs experimental testing.     

基于弹塑性修正Hertz接触理论的落石冲击力计算方法

本文以弹塑性修正的Hertz接触理论为基础,考虑落石冲击缓冲层过程的复杂性和缓冲层厚度的影响,结合路基规范方法的落石冲击深度公式,得出落石最大冲击力计算方法。以日本道路公团方法计算结果上浮40%为基准值,引入参数影响系数ζ,拟合出参数影响系数ζ多项式函数,采用S.Kawahara等教授的试验结果,对杨其新方法进行修正,拟合出其高值(h=0.5m)与低值(h=3.0m)比值的多项式函数。本文方法与陈氏方法进行比较得知:陈氏方法的最大冲击力低值稍高于本文方法,其范围为1.05～1.02(H=5～30m)。运用布西涅斯克解,推导出了落石冲击荷载作用于拦石墙背部的附加应力计算公式,为拦石墙构筑物的结构设计打下了理论基础。     

科右中旗查干楚鲁矿区钻探施工中护壁堵漏的几点体会

介绍了科右中旗查干楚鲁矿区钻进中所采取的护壁堵漏技术措施。根据岩层及孔深情况采用了套管护壁堵漏、冲洗液护壁堵漏、水泥封孔护壁堵漏等,收到了良好的效果。特殊岩层护壁所采取的下飞管护壁安全可靠。羧甲基纤维素钠（CMC）＋水解聚丙烯酰胺（PHP）低固相泥浆形成的泥皮致密而坚韧,对孔内坍塌、掉块具有较高的抑制功能。钻杆内灌入水泥浆封孔的方法,可根据需要合理调节水灰比及惰性材料的大小,保证了封孔的效益和质量。各种护壁技术均效果明显,可进行推广使用。     

高强度开采工作面矿压显现的面长和推进速度效应

高强度开采工作面矿压显现复杂,容易发生压架、冒顶等灾害。为从理论上解释高强度开采工作面的矿压特征,分析了高强度开采工作面的一般特征及其对矿压显现的影响,以顶板初次断裂为例,运用薄板理论并结合岩石力学试验成果,推导出不同面长和不同推进速度下顶板断裂步距的计算公式,并分析了面长和推进速度对来压时支架工作阻力的影响机制。结果表明,面长影响顶板应力分布,推进速度改变顶板承载能力,而且面长越短,推进速度越快,顶板的初次断裂步距就会越大。对于高强度开采工作面,面长普遍大于200 m,面长效应影响微弱,矿压显现主要受推进速度作用,断裂步距和来压时支架工作阻力都比非高强度开采工作面大,容易发生压架和冒顶等灾害。     

Large-scale physical modeling study on the interaction between rockfall and flexible barrier

Flexible barriers have been widely applied in rockfall mitigation in recent years. However, the behavior of flexible barriers under the impact of boulders is still not fully understood. To investigate the interaction between a flexible barrier and a falling boulder, a large-scale physical modeling device has been constructed at a site in Hong Kong. Using this device, large-scale impact tests using boulders with different diameters were conducted. Test results are presented and analyzed in this paper. The motion of the boulder during impact is traced and analyzed. The impact forces on the flexible ring net and the supporting structures are measured and compared. From the comparison, the impact reduction rates (IRR) of boulders with different diameters are calculated. Moreover, a simple approach for estimating the impact loading of a boulder on a flexible barrier is proposed in this study. This approach is calibrated and verified using measured impact forces in the tests.     

塔柱状岩体崩塌运动特征分析

塔状岩体是中国西南灰岩山区常见的地质灾害隐患.这类岩体点多面广,破坏频率极高,诱发因素甚多.以甑子岩危岩体为例,基于影像资料,详细剖析了塔状岩体的崩塌失稳过程,重点对其失稳过程中的运动特征开展了研究.认为甑子岩危岩失稳可分为启动、加速、碰撞3个运动阶段,塔状岩体的破坏从底部开始,在上覆岩体下坠过程中,呈现出由下至上、裂缝扩展、破坏传递、空中崩解的特点.研究发现甑子岩塔状岩体的加速度曲线在下降阶段表现出类似缓冲现象的连续负向波动,且不同位置测点的运动特征曲线具有显著的时效差异性,表明塔状岩体在失稳下坠过程中同步发生着破裂、碰撞、解体等变化.     

Evaluation of Fragments from Disc Cutting of Dry and Saturated Sandstone

As the use of mechanical excavation in tunneling and mining activities expands, so has the use of disc cutters in various ground conditions. The impact of moisture content on rock behavior and rock excavation by disc cutters is examined in this study. This was done through a series of full-scale cutting tests using a 292 mm (11.5 in.) disc cutter in a moderate strength sandstone. The muck from the cutting tests was used to determine coarseness index (CI) and absolute size constant (x′). x′ was calculated using Rosin–Rammler distribution (or Weibull) curve, a statistical technique to look at the fragmented rock products. This approach is very popular among the mineral-processing professionals for the evaluation of the particle sizes of the comminution products. x′ and CI show a reasonable correlation with the specific energy of cutting and production rate. Both of these indicators were found to be dependent on the cut spacing and the interaction between the adjacent cuts, as anticipated. This paper explains the background information on this topic, reviews the laboratory testing, and offers analysis of the results of grain size distribution and its relationship with specific energy and cutting geometry. It should be noted that the experimental program was limited to only one rock type and additional testing on the other rock types is required to expand the results of the current study.     

Gouging abrasion test for rock abrasiveness testing

Wear parts of many mineral processing and mining equipment are often subjected to high stress loads applied at high speeds and at varying angles of incidence, where the prevalent mode of wear is high-stress gouging/sliding impact abrasion. Examples include crusher liners, wear liners in hoppers and chutes, picks on roadheaders, discs on tunnel boring machines and ground engaging tools. Abrasion under these conditions is characterised by a high material removal rate and thus has a direct bearing on wear rates and service life of the equipment concerned. However, at present there appears to be no method for rock abrasiveness assessment under these conditions. This paper describes a new Gouging Abrasion method and apparatus for testing abrasivity of rocks under high-stress gouging/sliding impact wear. A Gouging Abrasion Index (Gi) is introduced, which can be used for prediction and assessment of component life expectancy and efficiency of mineral processing and materials handling equipment. Experimental data from Gouging Abrasion testing of numerous Australian rock types are presented. It is suggested that the results of Gi testing can be used for wear rate predictions for a variety of mineral processing and materials handling equipment working under high-stress gouging/sliding impact abrasion conditions.