黑河下游额济纳绿洲荒漠植被与地下水位埋深的 定量关系

干旱区植被生长与地下水的依存关系是生态水文地质学研究的热点之一。由于降水稀少,中国西北地区植被的生长发育与地下水的关系极为密切,从大尺度上研究地下水变化的生态效应问题对生态环境的保护和恢复具有重要的意义。借助遥感方法,结合地下水观测数据,在区域尺度上定量地研究了我国黑河下游额济纳绿洲荒漠植被发育与地下水埋深的关系。结果表明:适宜植被生长的地下水埋深范围约为2~5 m,当地下水埋深超过5.5 m时,由于植被根系缺水,不能维持冠层正常生长,几乎没有植被发育。     

黑河流域土地利用变化的影响因素--以张掖地区为例

在内陆干旱地区, 土地利用结构的合理与否对区域生态环境和经济建设具有直接制约作用. 对张掖地区主要土地利用类型耕地、林地、草地、荒漠化土地变化影响因素关系进行了分析研究. 结果显示: 自然因素是制约土地利用水平和结构的最基本的因素, 人为因素对现代土地利用变化的驱动作用则更为显著. 耕地面积的增加主要与水资源开发利用率的提高有直接的关系, 人口增长对耕地面积增加有间接促进作用. 从建国初期到现今本区人口增加了2.29倍, 而耕地面积也从9.7×104 hm2增加到了18.6×104 hm2. 耕地面积减少则主要与人为不合理利用引起的土地荒漠化有关. 在林地的变化中, 自然条件限制着森林的发展, 人为因素对林地变化的驱动作用大于自然因素的影响; 草地面积减少主要是人为超载放牧和破坏以及人类过度开垦农田的结果, 20世纪90年代后期比80年代初期草地面积减少了62.4%. 同时, 荒漠化土地面积也在不断的增长. 在土地生态规律的基础上, 进行科学管理, 人为力量将成为优化干旱地区土地利用结构和提高生产力的重要驱动力.     

全球生态系统的状况与趋势

简要介绍了千年生态系统评估（MA）项目状况与趋势工作组的报告《生态系统与人类福祉：现状与趋势》中的第3部分，即“对提供生态系统服务的各类系统的评估”。评估结果表明，在20世纪的后50年，全球生态系统的变化幅度和速度皆超过了人类历史上有记录的任何一个相等时间段的情况，目前人类活动实际上已经显著地改变了地球上的所有生态系统。这些变化主要表现在：① 大约1/4的地球陆地表层已经转变为垦殖系统，而且在1950年之后的30年中，转变为农田的土地面积比1700—1850年这150年间转变的总和还要多；②全球大多数的重要流域，由于水资源利用造成的栖息地丧失与破碎化，以及由于养分、沉积物、盐分及有毒物质造成的污染，已经显著地破坏了河流、湖泊和盐水沼泽等湿地生态系统的功能与生物多样性；③ 旱区系统存在着水资源匮乏、过度垦殖、过度放牧和过度砍伐树木等问题，生态状况尤其令人担忧；④ 栖息地的丧失与破碎化、过度开发、污染以及气候变化，已经对海滨系统造成了严重的生态威胁；⑤ 不可持续的农业开发模式，已经严重地破坏了热带森林生态系统的结构与功能。     

Uraniferous waters of the Arkansas River valley,Colorado, U.S.A.: a function of geology and land use

The effect of local geology and land-use practices on dissolved U was investigated by analysis of surface water and some springs in the Arkansas River valley of southeastern Colorado. Water samples were collected during a 2 week period in April, 1991. The rate of increase of U concentration with distance downriver increased markedly as the river flowed from predominantly undeveloped lands underlain by igneous and metamorphic rocks to agriculturally developed lands underlain by marine shale and limestone. An additional abrupt increase in dissolved U was observed along the section of river where discharge is often greatly reduced because of extensive diversions for irrigation and where remaining flow is largely composed of irrigation return water. Dissolved U in this last section of river and in most of its tributaries exceeded the proposed U.S. drinking water standard of 20 μ/L In water samples collected from agricultural areas dissolved U showed strong positive correlation with major dissolved constituents Na, Ca, Mg, and SO₄ that increase as a result of sulfate mineral dissolution and clay mineral ion-exchange reactions in weathered shale bedrock and shaley soils. Highly soluble minor and trace elements Cl, Li, B, Sr, and Se that are not subject to strong sorptive uptake or precipitation in this setting also correlated positively with U. These combined observations indicate that natural leaching of U-bearing shale bedrock and derivative soils, additional leaching of rock and soil by irrigation water, and evaporative concentration in a semi-arid climate can produce concentrations of dissolved U in surface water and shallow ground water that may threaten nearby drinking water supplies. Other agriculturally developed areas of the semi-arid Western U.S. with similar geology are likely to contain high concentrations of U in irrigation drain water.     

Substitutes for water are being found in the Middle East and North Africa

Evident mismatches exist between the demand and supply of water in many countries particularly in the semi-arid and arid worlds. The resulting food gaps which concern both the national governments of these countries as well as the international agencies which extend assistance to them, appear at first sight to pose challenges beyond the economic and political capacity of peoples and institutions to make the necessary adjustments. The institutions with responsibility for the allocation and planning of water use at international, national and local levels do not seem to be robust enough, or informed enough, to provide the necessary leadership to ensure that scarce water is used sustainably.It will be argued that despite the great difficulties which governments and users face in coping with the need to manage water so that it brings a sound return, as well as according to principles of equity, safety, and ecological sustainability, everywhere there are examples of conflict over water being avoided. And while the avoidance of conflict can in many cases be calculated to have been at a cost to the environment, nevertheless, to date conflict of a hot nature has been avoided. Case studies from a region seen to have the worst water resource future outside the industrialised world, the Middle East and North Africa, will be discussed which exemplify the numerous strategies adopted by countries in their various ecological, economic and political circumstances. A fortunate few governments have substituted oil capital for water while others have filled the food gap, which is generally an expression of the water gap, by ceding economic and political autonomy.     

Groundwater Sustainability in Arid and Semi-arid Environments: A Review2

Groundwater is an important part of the global hydrological cycle. Sustainable utilization of groundwater is related to regional ecological security and food security, especially in arid and semi-arid environments. This paper reviewed the important achievements of the research on groundwater sustainability in arid and semi-arid environments during the past 30 years, and summarized the research progress in groundwater sustainability of arid and semi-arid environments from the conception evolution of groundwater sustainability, evaluation methods, influencing factors, sustainable management, and research frontiers. Our analysis suggests that groundwater in water limited environments around the world has shown unsustainable characteristics both in terms of quantity and quality. However, the existing research focuses more on the quantitative characteristics than the quality characteristics of groundwater, and thus the seriousness of the decline in groundwater sustainability is potentially underestimated. It is pointed out that more research efforts need to be done in the future in balancing the groundwater resources for human and nature, clarifying the impacts of human disturbance and climate change on groundwater sustainability, and strengthening groundwater sustainability through transboundary watershed management. We argued that the difficulty remains how to quantify the sustainable yield of a groundwater basin, and how to assess the groundwater sustainability. Further investigations are required in improving the theoretical framework of groundwater sustainability, modeling the impacts of the various alternative groundwater development scenarios, developing more flexible and efficient indicator frameworks for sustainability evaluation of groundwater system, and deploying more sophisticated groundwater monitoring network for real-time data acquisition. Finally, awareness should also be raised towards ground water sustainability both at the legal level and in the sphere of political action.     

Use and availability of ground-water

Every man has to consume a certain quatity of water every day. This use constitutes the most basic need for water. In households water is also used for basic hygiene, washing, cleaning, and for the transport of sewage. Water is used in industry for cooling, generating electric power, for the production of a large variety of goods, and other purposes. The greatest demand for water results from irrigation. To satisfy these demands, an increasing quantity of ground-water is used. It is available at many places, where far extended subsurface reservoirs exist; it is better protected against pollution than surface water. But even though ground-water exists in many geological formations, which seem to be infinite, the availability is limited. The recharge of ground-water is dependent on the supply of atmospheric moisture. Especially in semiarid and arid zones this component of the hydrologic cycle determines the availability of ground-water. Besides natural conditions, technical and economic factors such as drilling of boreholes and the cost of pumping of ground-water have to be considered. Also political decisions can limit the availability of ground-water. If, for instance, wetlands are destroyed by drawdown of ground-water, nontechnical and non-economical aspects are involved. We face undesirable effects of ground-water pumping. Whether these effects are tolerable or intolerable depends on the decision-making processes on a political level.     

黑龙江流域水体和沉积物重金属的生态风险研究

中国东北黑龙江流域作为重工业基地和商品粮基地,水体、沉积物和土壤的重金属污染非常值得关注。作者采集了黑龙江流域从上游干旱区到下游三江平原的河水、湖水、地下水和河床沉积物样品,分析重金属元素含量,运用不同指标评估了流域的水资源安全和沉积物的污染风险程度。研究结果显示,在黑龙江流域上游干旱区,部分地表水和地下水的As含量超过了中国生活饮用水卫生标准,最多接近7倍,上游地区居民的用水安全需要引起有关部门的关注。通过内梅罗指数法（P 综合）和潜在生态危害指数（RI ）的综合评估表明,黑龙江流域沉积物的总体生态风险较低。单个重金属元素中,Cd在大部分流域存在中等生态风险,有3个沉积物样品展现出较高生态风险。Cd作为危害中国耕地土壤和人类健康的主要重金属元素,在黑龙江流域同样也需要予以重点关注。     

Soil water movement and deep drainage through thick vadose zones on the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountain: Croplands vs. natural lands

Regional aridity is increasing under global climate change, and therefore the sustainable use of water resources has drawn attention from scientists and the public. Land-use changes can have a significant impact on groundwater recharge in arid regions, and quantitative assessment of the impact is key to sustainable groundwater resources management. In this study, the changes of groundwater recharge after the conversion of natural lands to croplands were investigated and compared in inland and arid region, i.e., the northern slope of the Tianshan Mountain. Stable isotopes suggest that soil water in topsoil (< 2 m) has experienced stronger evaporation under natural lands than croplands, and then moves downward as a piston flow. Recharge was estimated by the tracer-based mass balance method, i.e., chloride and sulfate. Recharge rates under natural conditions estimated by the chloride mass balance (CMB) method were estimated to be 0.07 mm/a in deserts and 0.4 mm/a in oases. In contrast, the estimated groundwater recharge ranged from 61.2 mm/a to 44.8 mm/a in croplands, indicating that groundwater recharge would increase significantly after land changes from natural lands to irrigated croplands in arid regions. Recharge estimated by the sulfate mass balance method is consistent with that from the CMB method, indicating that sulfate is also a good tracer capable of estimating groundwater recharge.     

Aeolian desertification and its causes in the Zoige Plateau of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

Studies and efforts to control aeolian desertification in China have focused on the arid and semiarid lands in the north. However, the aeolian desertification that is occurring on the high-altitude Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau, which has a cold and humid climate, has received attention only in recent years. In this paper, we report the results of monitoring this aeolian desertification between 1975 and 2005 and of our analysis of its causes on the Zoige Plateau, which is located in the northeastern part of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. Aeolian desertified lands expanded at a compound annual rate of 4.07% between 1975 and 2005. They expanded most rapidly between 1975 and 1990, at an annual rate of 7.73%. Factors responsible for this expansion include increasing temperature, decreasing precipitation, over-grazing, drainage of water systems, and land reclamation for agriculture. Increasing temperature, over-grazing, and the drainage of water systems were the key factors. The climatic variations between 1975 and 2005 were not sufficient by themselves to lead to aeolian desertification. Human disturbances such as over-grazing and drainage of water systems must thus have been primarily responsible for the observed changes, and human behavior must be adjusted to control the expansion of aeolian desertification and rehabilitate the desertified lands.     

Simulation of nitrate transport and wastewater seepage in groundwater flow system

Groundwater quantity and quality modeling is one approach for optimal use of available water resources in arid and semiarid regions. This study was conducted to simulate flow treatment and nitrate transport on Shahrekord aquifer using three-dimensional solute transport model and geographical information system. Hydraulic conductivity, specific yield and recharge values in flow simulation process and effect molecular diffusion coefficient, longitudinal dispersivity and distribution coefficient in quality model were calibrated. 120 water samples during July 2007 to June 2008 were collected monthly from 10 wells and measurements of nitrate were carried out. The results show that the developed model is successfully used to simulate flow path and nitrate transport in saturated porous media. The highest values of nitrate occur along Bahram–Abad village and the surroundings. The groundwater quality in the area represents a complex system, which is affected by different factors of pollution, such as urban wastewater and leaching of agricultural lands.     

基于地球化学数据的有毒元素潜在生态危害评价研究——以内蒙古自治区敖汉旗为例

环境中不同的污染物可经过各种迁移转化途径,通过食物链进入人体,对人体的健康带来威胁.土壤污染物中以重金属比较突出,其中Hg、Cd、Pb、Cr以及类金属As等对生物毒性显著,Zn、Cu、Ni、Co、Sn等对生物的毒性一般.利用1：5万敖汉旗幅水系及土壤地球化学勘查所取得的数据,采用单因子污染指数法评价单元素污染程度,并采用重金属元素毒性响应系数评价区域有毒元素潜在风险,得到研究区主要潜在生态危害元素为Cd、Pb、As,其中Cd元素危害最大,主要潜在污染因素为采石场、采矿场、垃圾场等人为地质作用因素以及原生地质环境因素.     

Satellite-based assessment of large-scale land cover change in Asian arid regions in the period of 2001–2009

Arid regions in Asia are commonly characterized by rapidly growing populations with limited land resources and varying rainfall frequencies under climatic change. Despite being one of the most important environmental challenges in Asia, the changing aridity in this region, particularly due to large-scale land cover change, has not been well documented. In this study, we used rainfall data and a new land heterogeneity index to identify recent trend in land cover changes in the Asian arid regions. The result indicates a significant decreasing trend of barren lands and an increasing trend of vegetated lands. Although the potential land cover change is commonly believed to be strongly sensitive to rainfall change, such sensitivity has not been observed during the nine-year period (2001–2009) analyzed. Through the analyses of two separate periods (2001–2005 and 2005–2009), the sensitivity of rainfall to land cover change in arid regions is found to be dependent on the initial spatial heterogeneity of vegetated land cover. The approach used and the findings in this study represent an important step toward better understanding of large-scale land cover change in the Asian arid regions, and have the potential to predict future land cover change under various climate change scenarios.     

Risk assessment of groundwater pollution using sensitivity analysis and a worst-case scenario analysis

This paper illustrates how sensitivity analysis and a worst-case scenario analysis can be useful tools in risk assessment of groundwater pollution. The approach is applied to a study area in Hungary with several known groundwater pollution sources and nearby drinking water production wells. The main concern is whether the contamination sources threaten the drinking water wells of the area. A groundwater flow and transport model is set up to answer this question. Due to limited data availability, the results of this model are associated with large uncertainty. Sensitivity analysis and a worst-case scenario analysis are applied to estimate this uncertainty and build confidence in the model results.     

Modification of the quality of water injected into Louisiana gulf coast sands: Effects of cation exchange

Interest in artificially recharging selected shallow sands in South Louisiana with fresh water has been stimulated by the desire to retard contamination of municipal groundwater supplies by brackish water, to retard ground subsidence and decrease pumping lifts, and to develop emergency subsurface supplies of potable water for communities dependent on surface waters susceptible to contamination. Results of field experiments, laboratory work, and model calculations demonstrate that ion exchange reactions involving clays dispersed in aquifer sands can be expected to modify significantly the composition of waters injected into Gulf Coast sediments. As little as 0.1 weight percent smectite (montmorillonite) can remove, by exchange with absorbed Na, a significant fraction of the dissolved Ca and Mg present in the injected water. The hardness of the water is thus reduced, which may be a desirable modification in water quality. Exchange occurs as fast as the fluids can be pumped into or out of the aquifer, and the water-softening capacity of the aquifer can be restored by allowing sodium-rich native pore waters to sweep back over the dispersed clays. Each acre of an aquifer 50 feet thick and containing 0.1 wt % smectite could soften half a million gallons of injected Mississippi River water. Many individual Gulf Coast aquifers underlie tens of thousands of acres, and their potential softening capacity is thus enormous. Additional exchange processes involving adjacent aquitard shales presumably will operate over long-term periods. It is possible that Gulf Coast aquifers will be used at some point in the future as processing plants to treat injected water to improve its quality for a variety of municipal and industrial purposes.     

干旱区凝结水研究进展

凝结水是维系干旱、半干旱地区主要食物链的水分来源之一,具有重要的生态意义。较详细地列举了目前国内外在干旱区测定凝结量及其持续时间所采用的研究方法,从凝结水的数量特征以及时间格局两方面阐述了不同地域凝结水的时空差异性,并从气象因素、凝结面的类型及其位置、周边植被对其作用等方面综合分析了影响凝结水发生的主要因素,探讨了干旱区凝结水的生态作用及其意义,展望了干旱区凝结水未来的研究趋势。提出在未来的干旱区凝结水研究中应加强与气象学、生态学等多学科的交叉,从能量平衡角度加强对凝结水量的研究;同时,改进和规范凝结水的测量方法,开展荒漠植被对凝结水的生理响应研究以及凝结水对极端干旱胁迫植物的作用研究。     

超采对北京市潮白河冲洪积扇中上部地区地下水质的影响

潮白河冲洪积扇中上游地区作为北京市最主要地表水和地下水供给区,在城市供水中的作用举足轻重。由于多年连续超采,地下水位持续下降,1999-2013年地下水位下降最大达45 m;应急水源地地区地下水硬度年均上升2.6%,密云十里堡地区地下水硬度和硝酸盐氮超标。通过分析潮白河冲洪积扇区域地下水开发利用、地下水位和水质变化情况以及地下水位变化对地下水水质的影响,认为：超量开采导致的地下水水位下降是引起该区域地下水水质恶化的主要原因之一,控制地下水超量开采和地表水污染,并利用南水北调的水进京之机回灌和停采以涵养地下水,是恢复区域水资源和水环境的良好途径。     

官厅水库水和沉积物中的重金属

研究了官厅水库水和沉积物中重金属铜、铅、锌、镉的分布和行为特性.结果表明,它们在水体中以可溶态存在的只占4.2%,大部分赋存于悬浮物中.对这些重金属在沉积物中的赋存状态作了研究,结果表明,可交换态的比例仅为0.6%.重金属在水体的分布可反映污染源和沿途沉积的影响.从不同沉积期底质中的重金属含量可以推断其污染历程.长期水质变化趋势表明,水中重金属含量在1985年前呈上升趋势,以后呈下降趋势,其原因是由于水体含沙量的变化.     

祁连山八一冰川雷达测厚与冰储量分析

基于2006年5月利用探地雷达对祁连山八一冰川厚度的系统测量资料,绘制了该冰川冰厚度分布等值线图,计算出了该冰川的平均厚度为54.2 m,冰储量为0.153 km2.这几乎是我国第一次冰川编目资料中给出的八一冰川平均厚度(30 m)和冰储量(0.0843 km3)数据的1倍.由此可见,准确评估我国冰川的冰储量是冰川水资源研究亟待解决的重要问题.将八一冰川冰面地形图与冰厚度分布图相结合,绘制了该冰川的冰床地形图,结果表明:其崎岖不平的冰床地形与其相对平缓的冰面地形形成了显明的对比,显示了冰帽冰川的形貌特征.     

Global climate change and human health

Predicted changes in temperature during the next century and the possibility of substantial depletion of stratospheric ozone would represent an unprecedently rapid change in the global environment with enormous effects including important impacts on human health. These are likely to be most obvious in the Third World where some areas can expect an intensification of existing major health hazards: an increased frequency of floods and storms; changes to the availability of food and good quality domestic water supplies and climate-related changes in the ecology of insect vectors for diseases such as malaria. In developed countries significant impacts can also be anticipated. More frequent episodes of hot weather could be associated with more food poisoning and with increases in deaths from circulatory diseases. These might be offset by lower mortality rates in warmer winters. Exposure to photochemical atmospheric pollution is likely to increase. Stratospheric ozone depletion together with more exposure to sun in warmer weather could accelerate the existing rise in the incidence of skin cancer and increase the risk of cataracts.