Scientific advice in integrated ocean management: The process towards the Barents Sea plan

It is widely held that integrated management of ocean areas needs to be based on integrated scientific advice. Such advice crosses disciplinary and traditional sector boundaries. This paper aims to provide insight into the role of science and scientific knowledge in a process towards integrated ocean management. It does so by exploring the organization of the process towards the integrated management plan for the Barents Sea-Lofoten area in Norway. It sheds light on the complexity of management questions in a context characterized by uncertainty and political controversy, largely concerning petroleum activity. Scientists were asked to provide a dynamic view on these issues and have delivered important material that furthers the task of policy development. However, there is a persisting lack of understanding about the consequences of human impact on the ecosystem. The paper finishes by pointing at the need for a larger societal discussion on what activities we consider appropriate, considering the limits of science to provide the knowledge base for questions that transcend the environmental domain.     

Assessment of IUU fishing for Southern Bluefin Tuna

Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is recognized as one of the largest threats to the sustainability of the world's fisheries. This paper focuses on IUU fishing in the context of unreported catches by members or co-operating non-members of regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) and their implications for scientific assessments of stock status and management advice. A review of Japanese market statistics was undertaken in 2006 by an independent panel in relation to catches of southern bluefin tuna (SBT). Based on this review, the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT) concluded that very substantial and continuous unreported catches of SBT had been taken by longline vessels since at least the early 1990s. While uncertainty exists about the fleets contributing to these IUU catches, the assumption used within the CCSBT Scientific Committee is that a significant proportion of these were taken by Japanese longliners. Implications of these unreported catches for the stock assessments by RFMOs are discussed in light of the central role that Japanese vessel reported data have in the assessment of the world's tuna and billfish stocks. Results indicate that it is plausible that the unreported catches of SBT stem from the misreporting of catches as other tuna species and/or the location of fishing effort. The magnitude and extended period of the unreported SBT catches highlight the wide-spread risks of relying on fishery dependent logbook data in the absence of verification. An urgent need exists for minimum standards of verification of catch, effort and landing statistics for use in scientific assessments. The fisheries science community needs to be more pro-active in the development of such standards and the implementation of independent monitoring and verification. In addition, there is a need to reform the operation of the scientific bodies of RFMOs in terms of transparency, the treatment of uncertainty and the burden of proof if they are to be effective in providing objective scientific advice consistent with the intent of international agreements.     

Fisheries science and sustainability in international policy: a study of failure in the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy

Within the European Union, scientific fisheries research and advice is passed down a chain of central European institutions before being incorporated into policy. However, advice is often poorly or only partially implemented and the system has largely failed to achieve sustainable fisheries management.This paper aims to explain why, by examining the use of fisheries science within the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). The problem is examined with respect to both the political system and fisheries science, to show that the factors in both the supply, and the subsequent use, of scientific data inhibit effective fisheries management.     

Scientists’ prioritization of global coastal research questions

Complex coastal management challenges often span ecological and political boundaries, and involve competing demands from groups advocating alternative coastal management strategies. As a consequence, policy-makers require scientific evidence from across a range of disciplines. Implementing cross-disciplinary research and facilitating science-policy engagement are, however, a significant challenge in its own right. Seven recent ecologically oriented ‘big question’ exercises identified a variety of research questions potentially important for coastal and marine management. In this research, 592 coastal scientists from 91 different countries completed a survey that ranked those 20 coastally oriented research questions. There was a clear overall ordering of aggregated coastal research priorities but scientists did exhibit heterogeneity regarding priorities. Some prioritized ecological issues while others focused more on issues such as coastal resource use or global environmental change. The differences in opinion were largely disciplinary-based, highlighting the importance of, and challenges in, encouraging scientific collaboration across disciplines to support effective coastal zone management. In addition to the ranking of existing questions, scientists submitted an additional 340 potential priority research questions, thus broadening the participatory nature of the original exercises. New questions regarding coastal processes, contaminants and pollution, and monitoring were prominent. This first synthesis across ‘big question’ exercises should provide valuable insights into the diversity of scientists’ opinions and help policy makers understand potentially conflicting science advice.     

The science-policy interface in fisheries management: Insights about the influence of organizational structure and culture on information pathways

Understanding how information flows between scientific and decision-making communities is essential for the creation of effective strategies to link scientific advice to management decisions. Interviews of scientists and managers in two inter-related fisheries management organizations – the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) and the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) – and direct observations at science and management meetings revealed important organizational characteristics that influence the production, communication, and use of scientific information in decision-making. Formal processes for communicating scientific advice to managers – DFO's Canadian Scientific Advisory Secretariat (CSAS) and NAFO's Fisheries Commission's Request for Advice – demonstrate the use of credible, relevant, and legitimate advice for operational decision-making for fisheries management. Such defined processes, in addition to governmental bureaucracy, departmentalization, and de-centralization, can limit communication as highlighted for Canada as a Contracting Party to NAFO. Administrative mechanisms can pose challenges to implementing ecosystem approaches to fisheries management (EAF) and to addressing the impacts of climate change. Emerging organizational structures and behaviours facilitate communication at the science-policy interface, within and between the organizations, thereby improving understanding of science and management needs and promoting trust relationships between scientists and managers. The involvement of multiple stakeholders in the information pathways addresses concerns about scientific uncertainty in assessment advice. A linear model of information flow typifies operational decision-making; however, collaborative models that incorporate different types of information, apart from fisheries science, are required to enable ecosystem-based management. The characteristics of the information pathways are particularly relevant as the organizations address their EAF mandates.     

The spectre of uncertainty in management of exploited fish stocks: The illustrative case of Atlantic bluefin tuna

The recent overexploitation of East Atlantic and Mediterranean bluefin tuna stock has been well documented in the media where it has become the archetype of overfishing and general mis-management. Beyond the public debate, the crisis also highlighted how the interactions between science and management can change through time according to the awareness of the public opinion. To reflect these issues, the history of Atlantic bluefin tuna overfishing is first described. Then, the major uncertainties that undermine the current scientific advice are summarized and the importance of reducing their impacts by improving knowledge and developing robust scientific framework is considered. The study also discusses how uncertainty was used by different lobbies to discredit science-based management. The recent improvement in bluefin tuna stock status following the implementation of the rebuilding plan shows that, despite uncertainty in the scientific advice, the management of a heavily exploited fish stock can be positive when there is a political will. However, optimizing long-term yields of modern fisheries implies good science. The study concludes by advocating for the implementation of a scientific quota that should be part of the management framework to support the scientific advice.     

Moving beyond catch in allocation approaches for internationally shared fish stocks

Allocation schemes are one way to combat the tragedy of the commons, the situation whereby individual users of a shared resource put their own interests above the collective good. In the case of shared fisheries, developing equitable and transparent allocation schemes can help to ensure stable cooperative management agreements, which in turn will facilitate sustainable fisheries. Allocation schemes for shared fisheries resources, which have been in existence for decades, have recently been facilitated by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs). These schemes vary in the scale of interested parties, from simple two-country systems sharing Pacific salmon, to multi-country systems sharing Atlantic bluefin tuna. Most RFMOs tend to base allocation schemes on historical catch records, spatial stock abundance estimates, or a combination of these. Socio-economic factors do not appear to influence allocation to any major extent. Unfortunately, previous attempts at creating and enforcing allocation programs have not, by and large, been able to curb the serial depletion of fish stocks, particularly when the number of fishing countries is large. Several RFMOs are currently in the process of initiating or reformulating allocation programs. In this paper, current allocation approaches are reviewed and discussed in the context of their possible transference to new or evolving programs. Specifically, lessons from game theory are drawn on, and the potential for better incorporation of socio-economic circumstances in allocation decisions, which can incentivize improved compliance, is explored. The relevance of conclusions from the literature analyzing international water agreements is also discussed, and a combined socio-economic-ecological construct whereby allocation programs can be based on the sharing of benefits other than catch is proposed.     

What are the major global threats and impacts in marine environments? Investigating the contours of a shared perception among marine scientists from the bottom-up.

Marine scientists broadly agree on which major processes influence the sustainability of marine environments worldwide. Recent studies argue that such shared perceptions crucially shape scientific agendas and are subject to a confirmation bias. Based on these findings a more explicit engagement with scientists’ (shared) perceptions of global change in marine environments is called for. This paper takes stock of the shared understanding in marine science of the most pertinent, worldwide threats and impacts that currently affect marine environments. Using results from an email survey among leading academics in marine science this article explores if a shared research agenda in relation to global change in marine environments exists. The analysis demonstrates that marine scientists across disciplines are largely in agreement on some common features of global marine change. Nevertheless, the analysis also highlights where natural and social scientists diverge in their assessment. The article ends discussing what these findings imply for further improvement of interdisciplinary marine science.     

The added value of participatory modelling in fisheries management – what has been learnt?

How can uncertain fisheries science be linked with good governance processes, thereby increasing fisheries management legitimacy and effectiveness? Reducing the uncertainties around scientific models has long been perceived as the cure of the fisheries management problem. There is however increasing recognition that uncertainty in the numbers will remain. A lack of transparency with respect to these uncertainties can damage the credibility of science. The EU Commission's proposal for a reformed Common Fisheries Policy calls for more self-management for the fishing industry by increasing fishers' involvement in the planning and execution of policies and boosting the role of fishers' organisations. One way of higher transparency and improved participation is to include stakeholders in the modelling process itself. The JAKFISH project (Judgment And Knowledge in Fisheries Involving StakeHolders) invited fisheries stakeholders to participate in the process of framing the management problem, and to give input and evaluate the scientific models that are used to provide fisheries management advice. JAKFISH investigated various tools to assess and communicate uncertainty around fish stock assessments and fisheries management. Here, a synthesis is presented of the participatory work carried out in four European fishery case studies (Western Baltic herring, North Sea Nephrops, Central Baltic Herring and Mediterranean swordfish), focussing on the uncertainty tools used, the stakeholders' responses to these, and the lessons learnt. It is concluded that participatory modelling has the potential to facilitate and structure discussions between scientists and stakeholders about uncertainties and the quality of the knowledge base. It can also contribute to collective learning, increase legitimacy, and advance scientific understanding. However, when approaching real-life situations, modelling should not be seen as the priority objective. Rather, the crucial step in a science–stakeholder collaboration is the joint problem framing in an open, transparent way.     

Applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to habitat assessment and marine resource management

Marine scientists often assess habitats to understand the distribution and relative abundance of marine resources. Due to the spatial nature of habitats and associated temporal changes, however, assimilating data using traditional analytical methods is often difficult. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are proving to be effective tools to help address problems inherent in the analysis of spatial data, GIS can be used to effectively collate, archive, display, analyze, and model spatial and temporal data. Additionally, by combining dissimilar data types, such as socio-political boundaries, bottom types, and fish distributions, for example, resource managers can use GIS to make informed management decisions. In this way, GIS provides resource managers with a means to integrate scientific data with prevailing cultural values and traditions. We have developed a working GIS for the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary that allows interpretation of many terrestrial and marine data sets, including inter-tidal monitoring data, permit locations, seabird strandings, fisheries catch data, habitat types, marine political boundaries, as well as land cover classification from satellite imagery, watersheds, streams, roads, and political boundaries. We have linked terrestrial and marine data to create a broad spatial and temporal database that will be used in a variety of ways such as evaluating natural processes, permitting and monitoring coastal development and assessing environmental impacts (e.g. oil spills).     

Is there a need for a new governance model for regionalised Fisheries Management? Implications for science and advice

Over the years, the breadth and depth of EU marine policy has increased with revisions of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and new legislation like the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) and the Framework for Marine Spatial Planning Directive in Europe (FMSP). Not only do these different policies have different remits and hence scope, they also present a multitude of modes of implementation. Although the CFP and MSFD have many common goals when it comes to conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources, they differ substantially in governance set up and implementation modalities, including the underlying scientific advisory processes and structures. Regional cooperation and coordination is foreseen, but there is no governance model in place to coordinate requests for scientific advice, nor institutions coordinating the activities of advice providers, either across policies or across regions. This results in an increase in uncoordinated requests for scientific advice yet the pool of experts fuelling the advisory system is limited. As a result the European marine scientific advisory system is increasingly under pressure. In this paper the consequences of this problem are analysed and a redesign of the institutional governance setting to accommodate these challenges and make the science and advice system ready for the future is explored.     

The Precautionary approach to fisheries management: How this is taken into account by Tuna regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs)

For several decades it has been acknowledged that there is an urgent need for new approaches to fisheries management, embracing conservation and environmental considerations. The voluntary Code of Conduct on Responsible Fishing and the United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement provide the formal basis for the Precautionary Approach to fisheries management. Some tuna Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as the WCPFC and IATTC make explicit mention of these codes in their conventions, whilst others, whose conventions do not explicitly address the Precautionary Approach, are searching for ways in which to take these codes into consideration. In practical terms, the scientific obligations to Precautionary Approaches are to determine the status of the stock(s) relative to limit and target reference points, to predict outcomes of management alternatives for reaching the targets and avoiding the limits, and to characterise the uncertainty in both cases. A convenient framework to conduct management evaluations is through the use of harvest control rules, for which managers agree on specific management actions under their control which are evoked according to levels of stock status relative to predefined reference points. These pre-agreed management actions are then simulated for a range of scenarios. This paper presents the ways in which tuna RFMOs are currently incorporating the precautionary approach in their fisheries management as well as suggestions for possible best practice.     

Towards a ‘new form of governance’ in science-policy relations in the European Maritime Policy

This article seeks to identify the key principles that should guide the definition of the mandate and institutional structure for acquiring scientific advice in support of the European Maritime Policy. The EU has stated that, as concerns the Maritime Policy, the relations between science and policy ought to reflect a ‘new form of governance’. Far from being an easy task, however, the EU has observed that there are problems of credibility and legitimacy in the relations between science and society (including policymakers), which first need to be overcome. Against this background, the article draws on some of the newest conceptual and empirical research on science-policy relations, which has sought to analyse and ultimately provide frameworks for overcoming such challenges. On this basis, the article investigates the principles that need to be applied to constitute a ‘new form of governance’ as a means of paving the way toward a more credible and legitimate use of scientific data, information and knowledge within policymaking and implementation processes.     

From ad hoc towards the institutionalisation: An assessment of Malaysia's policy evolution on Antarctica and the Southern Ocean

Malaysia's policy on Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (A&SO) in the last three decades has evolved from being focused on diplomatic engagement to pioneering science in cooperation with the international community and strengthening science diplomacy by becoming a member of the international governance of Antarctic. Through process-oriented evaluation, the aim of this study is to map out the development of Malaysia's policy on the Antarctic region (from 1982 to 2016) and consequently, identify the current capacities and future needs to strengthen its involvement. This study reveals that Malaysia's policy on A&SO has strong integration in foreign affairs, science and technology (S&T), and the environment, and the involvements are parallel with the national development plan. To move forward, Malaysia is currently establishing a suitable governance structure and a long-term management plan to ensure a long-term political commitment, sustain investment of resources and strengthen the dynamic participation of stakeholders. This study advances the scholarly understanding of the political processes and challenges to Malaysia's Antarctic policy development, in its journey towards institutionalisation which will create distinctive and valuable positions for Malaysia to contribute to current debates on the future of the Antarctic region. In the context of ad-hoc decision on certain policy, this case study will contribute relevant information about the development process, issues and challenges on policy through ad-hoc implementation.     

对生物海洋学内涵的理解

中国科学院海洋研究所是从一个海洋生物实验室发展起来的综合性海洋研究机构,生物海洋学的理念、科学内涵、科学视野、生物海洋学对海洋科学发展的推动作用等在海洋研究所的发展历程中得到完美体现,生物海洋学也一直伴随整个研究所的壮大而不断发展。在中国科学院海洋研究所成立70周年之际,从生物海洋学角度回顾研究所发展历程,将会加深我们对海洋科学不同学科间的相互关系、相互配合、学科交叉、融合发展的意义的理解,对海洋科学未来发展起到积极推动作用。     

Evaluating the basic elements of transparency of regional fisheries management organizations

This paper reports on the first global study of regional fisheries management organization (RFMO) transparency. It was prompted by recent scholarship that suggests that RFMOs are failing to meet their conservation and management mandates and that transparency is a critical element of this performance. In this study, 11 RFMOs were evaluated using 34 questions, divided into three sections: (i) access to full, up-to-date and accurate information; (ii) public participation in decision-making; and (iii) access to outcomes. Secretariats for all 11 RFMOs were contacted, and all responded, to correct and comment on initial findings and to share additional information. The total scores in this study reflect transparency as measured against current good practices in RFMOs as a whole, rather than some sort of idealistic benchmark. Each question should therefore be seen as a diagnostic tool that shows where some RFMO(s) fall short and how they can correct the shortfall based on the practices of their peers. These results have highlighted a number of good practices amongst RFMOs, with no single RFMO standing out as having particularly poor transparency practices. On the other hand, there also were not any RFMOs that had exemplary transparency practices in every respect and all RFMOs still have room to improve upon their basic transparency practices. This first transparency assessment is necessarily broad in nature and considers only very basic elements of transparency. It is to be expected that as RFMO practices become more sophisticated, so will the techniques and criteria of future transparency assessments.     

Potential ecological and social benefits of a moratorium on transshipment on the high seas

One way that illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fish catch is laundered into the seafood market is through transshipments at-sea. This practice, which often occurs on the high seas (the areas of ocean beyond national jurisdiction), allows vessels fishing illegally to evade most monitoring and enforcement measures, offload their cargo, and resume fishing without returning to port. At the same time, transshipment at-sea can facilitate trafficking and exploitation of workers who are trapped and abused on fishing vessels. This study gives an overview of high seas transshipment as well as evaluates transshipment at-sea regulations across 17 Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs), which are responsible for regulating fisheries on the high seas. Transshipment at-sea regulations have become increasingly strict in most RFMOs since the late 1990s. However, only five RFMOs have mandated a partial ban, and only a single RFMO, the South East Atlantic Fisheries Organization (SEAFO), has mandated a total ban on transshipment at-sea. A total ban on transshipment at-sea across all RFMOs would support the ability of oversight and enforcement agencies to detect and prevent IUU fishing and also likely reduce human trafficking and forced labor on the high seas.     

Failing the high seas: A global evaluation of regional fisheries management organizations

Regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs) collectively manage the largest distinct area of the world, the high seas, but their effectiveness in conserving the fish stocks therein has been questioned lately, as many stocks have declined. This study quantitatively assesses the effectiveness of the world's 18 RFMOs, based on a two-tiered approach, concentrating first on their performance ‘on paper’ and secondly, in practice. The former was determined by assessing how well RFMOs scored against 26 criteria that together reflect current RFMO best practices. The latter assessment referenced the current state of the stocks RFMOs manage, through biomass and fishing mortality reference points and biomass trends through time. Results show low performance of RFMOs for both assessments, i.e., average scores of 57% and 49%, respectively. The latter result is emphasized by findings that reflect two-thirds of stocks fished on the high seas and under RFMO management are either depleted or overexploited. Findings also indicate that there is no connection between the two sets of scores, suggesting a disparity between organization intent and action.     

Addressing multiple goals of ecosystem approach through deliberation and technology development

This paper studies two participatory processes to manage the interactions between seals and coastal fishing in Finland. One was a deliberative multi-stakeholder process, in which the stakeholders in a region approached the problem solving by joint problem definition. The other process was a technology development project to reduce the damage by seals and seal by-catch. This paper discusses the contribution of the processes to maintain economic viability of the coastal fishery without jeopardising the conservation of seals. It concludes that both processes address important aspects of maintaining a dynamic stability in a socio-ecological system of coastal fishing, but a combination of the approaches would better allow dealing with the problem's political aspects and fishing practices that are intertwined in various ways.     

Commercial fishing, conservation and compatibility in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

A critical issue in marine ecosystem-based management is addressing the compatibility of extractive use with ecosystem protection. Analysis of the protected area planning process for the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands suggests the key elements of an ecosystem-based approach to protected area management include establishing a common understanding among decision makers of ecosystem boundaries and ecosystem condition, informed by the best available science. A participatory process is proposed that relies on an informed assessment of whether extractive use compromises ecological integrity and is consistent with conservation objectives. Best practices for compatibility determinations are proposed for multi-agency protected area management and planning.