Towards a typology of interactions between small-scale fisheries and global seafood trade

Fish and fish-related products are among the most highly traded commodities globally and the proportion of globally harvested fish that is internationally traded has steadily risen over time. Views on the benefits of international seafood trade diverge, partly as a result from adopting either an aggregate national focus or a focus on local market actors. However, both views generally assume that the trade in question is characterized by export of fisheries resources to international markets. This is potentially misleading as empirical evidence suggests that import of seafood can also have impacts on local SSF dynamics. A systematic analysis of the different ways in which local production systems connect to international seafood markets can therefore help shed more light on why small-scale fisheries exhibit such differences in outcomes as they engage in an increasingly global seafood trade. This paper conducts a synthesis across 24 cases from around the world and develops a typology of small-scale fisheries and how they connect to and interact with international seafood trade. The analysis is based on key features drawn from trade theory regarding how trade interacts with local production. The implications of the findings for social and ecological sustainability of small-scale fisheries are discussed with the aim of identifying further research topics which deserve attention to better inform trade policy for more sustainable fisheries and more just wealth distribution from their trade.     

Disentangling seafood value chains: Tourism and the local market driving small-scale fisheries

Identifying socio-economic drivers of small-scale fisheries is a fundamental step to understand impacts and pressures on fishery resources, and the behaviour of seafood trade actors. It is especially relevant for developing countries where such information is usually lacking and fisheries management is greatly needed. To address this gap, this study maps the structure of value chains of fish and marine invertebrates caught by small-scale fisheries from São Vicente, Cape Verde (West Africa), and examines the main socio-economic drivers behind the seafood trade on the island. Specifically, it shows how drivers, such as tourism and the local market, shape the preferences for certain species and how they affect the distribution of income among actors involved in the seafood trade. To collect this information, interviews were done with fishers, small-scale traders, market vendors, and restaurant owners, in all fishing communities of the island of São Vicente, in 2015. Tourism and the local market drive the exploitation of a wide variety of marine species, from small demersal low trophic level fish and marine invertebrates, to large pelagic high trophic level fish species. Moreover, the local seafood market, and especially tourism dynamics, contribute to the unequal distribution of income among actor groups, benefiting mostly restaurant owners due to their direct access to tourist consumers. Such findings have implications for local fishery resources management, food security, and fishing communities’ livelihoods.     

Towards a standard nomenclature for seafood species to promote more sustainable seafood trade in South Africa

Seafood fraud is widespread and undermines attempts to achieve more sustainable fisheries and seafood trade. Deliberate mislabelling of fish was first detected in South Africa in 2009, exposing the lack of coherent or explicit naming and labelling regulations. It was followed by considerable media coverage and public outrage. This catalysed a series of events that led to the creation of a new space of engagement where scientists, academics, and industry could begin to jointly solve the issue of seafood mislabelling. This paper first evaluates and identifies the shortcomings of the existing policy and regulatory framework applicable to seafood naming and labelling in South Africa. Next, it examines approaches of some other countries to deal with seafood (mis)naming, and puts forward a set of suggestions that could be used to improve the status quo in South Africa, or any other country in a similar position. Finally, it reports on subsequent developments over the past five years following the seafood scandal, including the formation of a working group with representation from across the seafood supply chain, regulatory bodies, and experts: resulting in a submission of a proposal for a new national standard for seafood market names in South Africa. These findings show how diverse actors can work in a cooperative and practical manner, to solve a common problem. Finally, it highlights the importance of the “bridging” role that non-governmental organisations can play in achieving this.     

Assistance networks in seafood trade – A means to assess benefit distribution in small-scale fisheries

This article addresses the connections between value chain actors in the tropical-marine small-scale fisheries of Zanzibar, Tanzania, to contribute to a better understanding of the fisher-trader link and how connections in general might feed into livelihood security. A sample of 168 fishers and 130 traders was taken across 8 sites through questionnaires and observations. The small-scale fishery system is mapped using a value chain framework both traditionally and from a less economic point of view where the assistance-exchange networks between fishery actors add another layer of complexity. Auxiliary actors previously disregarded emerge from the latter method thus shedding light on the poorly understood distribution of benefits from seafood trade. Female actors participate quite differently, relative to males in the market system, detached from high-value links such as the tourist industry, and access to predetermined or secured sales deals. Data shows that the fisher-trader link is not as one-sided as previously presented. In fact it has a more symbiotic exchange deeply nested in a broader trading and social system. Expanding the analysis from this link by taking a further step downstream highlights traders’ own sales arrangements and the social pressures they are under in realizing them. A complex picture, inclusive of diversified perspectives, on interactions in the market place is presented, as well as a reflection on the remaining critical question: how to integrate this type of data into decisions about future fisheries governance.     

Restructuring the Chinese seafood industry,global challenges and policy implications

This article discusses how the Chinese seafood industry will affect the rest of the world's fishing industries. The analysis is based on theories of economic comparative advantage, the international division of labour and the internationalization process related to trade activities. Given the increasing domestic demand for fish in China, the limited availability of domestic fish stocks and less success for farmed marine fish in China are considered some of the most important factors in restricting the growth in Chinese seafood production. The necessity of raw fish imports into China may increase pressure on global fish stocks and international fish prices, resulting in tighter supplies worldwide and higher seafood prices for the Chinese. Sustainable fish harvests and trade require stronger fishery management, in particular in the relations between seafood companies and governments along the entire international value chain supplying China. Such structural changes may allow new value-added possibilities for fish farming and the upgrading of certain fish species for human consumption that were previously utilized purely for fish feed.     

Regulations for marine microalgal toxins: towards harmonization of methods and limits

Toxins produced by marine microalgae are harmful to humans and a serious threat to aquaculture and fisheries. Most seafood-producing countries have established monitoring programmes and regulations to protect public health from the risk of toxin exposure. However, there are disparities in current regulations regarding methods and applied limits for toxin control. Inconsistencies are especially evident for Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (OSP) toxins. Epidemiological and toxicological data are necessary to assess risk, and to establish safe limits for the different groups of toxins. The scarcity or absence of pure toxins and certified reference materials has hampered toxicological studies and the development of suitable analytical methods. The World Trade Organization and the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade encourage the harmonization of regulations on food safety requirements. The current policy on trade liberalization of seafood is presented, together with a review of the regulations for marine microalgal toxins. Activities on harmonization of methods and limits, particularly to OSP toxins, are discussed.     

International trade law compatibility of market-related measures to combat illegal,unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing

Measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing increasingly seek to constrain access to markets. These measures include enhanced seafood traceability and catch documentation schemes, the blocking of port access and landings, the identification and assessment of vessels engaged in IUU fishing and the prohibition on imports, transhipments or trade of fish products. It is important that such measures are in accordance with international law, including the agreements of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This article evaluates a range of market-related measures for compatibility with international trade law, including the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. The law requires measures to be non-discriminatory and, for certain technical regulations, not more trade-restrictive than necessary to achieve a legitimate objective. However, there are exceptions to these rules, including for measures relating to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources or for measures necessary for the protection of animal life or health, public morals, or to secure compliance with certain laws or regulations. While the design of current unilateral measures to combat IUU fishing appears to accord with trade law requirements, this article argues that there is scope for a wider and more collective approach. In this vein, new provisions in the recently concluded Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) are identified. The article concludes with recommendations for governments, international organisations, private actors and the global community wishing to take action in this area.     

杭州湾海域常见生物体内有机物及重金属含量研究

舟山渔场作为中国最大的渔场,其出产的海产品在全国的海鲜市场占有举足轻重的位置。文章选取数种舟山海域常见海产品为研究对象,对其体内的重金属、有机物含量在专业实验室进行检测,并对检测结果进行对比分析;以此为例简要阐述舟山海域常见海产品体内的重金属、有机物含量,并对这些海产品进行简单的食品安全性评价,为海产品食品安全专业研究人员提供一些数据参考。     

Selling only sustainable seafood: Attitudes toward public regulation and retailer policies

This study investigates consumer attitudes toward stores selling only sustainable seafood in seven European countries. Using a split sample design, half of the respondents were asked if they would support new regulations requiring stores to sell only sustainable labeled seafood. The other half was asked if they would continue to buy their seafood at their preferred seafood store if the store implemented a new policy of selling only sustainable labeled seafood. Respondents were on average positive to new sustainability regulations that increased prices by less than 7%, and would on average not change store unless prices increased by more than 8%. Country differences are investigated and implications for private and public policies related to sustainability of seafood discussed.     

Weaknesses in the ethical framework of aquaculture related standards

This paper presents some results from a critical review of how well aquaculture standards fulfil their intentions to promote sustainable aquaculture. The focus was on revealing possible weaknesses in the ethical frameworks of the investigated documents, particularly with regard to less powerful stakeholders in aquaculture production and trade. The review revealed a bias across the standards in the sense that they devote most attention to an instrumental approach to environmental health, at the expense of social sustainability considerations. This indicated an asymmetry in the sense of more concern for the interests of the relatively affluent European seafood consumers than the interests of the poorer Asian aquaculture producers and their livelihood conditions. Two moves needed in the aquaculture standard industry are advised. One is to practically enhance the involvement and power of the weaker groups. The other is to secure pragmatically and politically feasible implementations of ideal theoretical ambitions.     

Socioeconomic dynamics of the Ghanaian tuna industry: a value-chain approach to understanding aspects of global fisheries

This study investigated how an industrial tuna fishery functions in terms of procedures, practices, governance and finance in the context of Ghana, West Africa. Tuna is Ghana’s biggest seafood export, contributing significantly to the domestic fisheries sector. A case-study approach was used to analyse relevant social and economic factors at the local scale to better understand how the global seafood industry operates in a low-income country. A value-chain framework was adopted to assess market structures, sales pathways and revenue distribution. We also investigated the role of actors engaged in the industry using secondary data, interviews, questionnaires and participant observations. The results revealed a changing organisational structure in tuna production, moving from bait-boat fishing with smaller companies to large-scale purse-seine fishing backed by consolidated Asian seafood companies. Production was found to depend significantly on local female intermediaries for access to funds through prefinancing arrangements. Considerable illegalities were identified within the value chain, highlighting the need for improved partnership and licensing negotiations, and for low-cost marine control and surveillance tools. As vertical integration increases within the industry, the influence of corporations as keystone actors becomes evident for the future social and ecological sustainability of the industry.     

The international institute of fisheries economics and trade

What are the effects of exchange rate fluctuations on international trade in seafoods? How do changes in tariff structures and non-tariff trade barriers affect the access of developing countries to seafood markets? What are the interdependencies between fishery management policies and seafood trade policies? These are among the questions being explored by researchers who have joined together to form the International Institute of Fisheries Economics and Trade (IIFET).     

Trade secrets: Renaming and mislabeling of seafood

As the global trade and market for seafood has grown, so have the twin problems of renaming and mislabeling. Resource scarcity, the potential for greater profits, and weak legislation have all encouraged incorrect labeling, the results of which include consumer losses, the subversion of eco-marketing, further degradation of fisheries resources, and even adverse effects on human health. This paper examines the extent and consequences of renaming and mislabeling seafood, the state of current legislation, and the importance of future policies, with particular attention to the US, where 80% of the seafood is imported and more than one-third of all fish are mislabeled. Policy recommendations include governments’ support for a global mandate to label species, country of origin, and catching or production method on all seafood with high penalties for infractions. Chain of custody standards, such as those recently implemented by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), should also be considered for adoption worldwide. To garner support for this legislation, consumers must become better acquainted and concerned with their seafood and its origins.     

荣成湾14种海洋经济生物体中的重金属水平与食用风险初步评价

本文以荣成湾近岸海域14种经济生物体为研究对象,运用电感耦合等离子体质谱法(ICP-MS)和原子荧光光谱法(AFS)对其体内Cu、Pb、Zn、Cd、Cr、Hg和As等7种重金属的含量进行了测定,采用单因子污染指数法(SFI)和金属污染指数法(MPI)对重金属污染程度和食用安全质量进行了评价,在此基础上,以日摄食量(DI)和目标危害系数(THQ)为考量指标,评估了人体摄食可能存在的健康风险。结果表明,14种经济生物体重金属平均含量ZnCuCrAsPbCdHg,7种重金属含量在14种经济生物体中存在一定的差异。对比海洋生物质量国家标准,14种经济生物体中Pb与部分贝类生物体中Zn和Cr稍有超标,8种经济生物体中总As和1种生物体中Pb含量超出人体消费卫生标准。人体暴露风险评估表明,红螺、三疣梭子蟹、星鳗、高眼鲽和棒锥螺中Pb和As的THQ大于1,摄食其有潜在的非致癌健康风险。综合研究结果提示,在人体正常摄食海产品水平下,不存在大的食品安全风险。     

Multilingual crews on Norwegian fishing vessels: Implications for communication and safety on board

In the last few decades, use of foreign labor in the Norwegian fishing fleet has increased. As fishing is a high-risk occupation, this article investigates a prevalent question regarding how the increased share of foreigners affects communication and safety on Norwegian fishing vessels. The article shows that multilingual crews and varying language proficiencies are not perceived by the fisheries actors themselves as risk factors in terms of safety in everyday operations. Fishing experience, hybrid language and body language compensate for language challenges and contribute to fishers' feeling of safety.     

Global seafood trade flows and developing economies: Insights from linking trade and production

Knowing the patterns of marine resource exploitation and seafood trade may help countries to design their future strategic plans and development policies. To fully understand these patterns, it is necessary to identify where the benefits accumulate, how balanced the arrangements are, and how the pattern is evolving over time. Here the flow of global seafood was traced from locations of capture or production to their countries of consumption using novel approaches and databases. Results indicate an increasing dominance of Asian fleets by the volume of catch from the 1950s to the 2010s, including fishing in the high seas. The majority of landings were by high-income countries’ fishing fleets in their own waters in the 1950s but this pattern was greatly altered by the 2010s, with more equality in landings volume and value by fleets representing different income levels. Results also show that the higher the income of a country, the more valuable seafood it imports compared to its exports and vice versa. In theory, this implies that the lower income countries are exporting high value seafood in part to achieve the broader goal of ending poverty, while achieving the food security goal by retaining and importing lower value seafood. In the context of access arrangements between developed and developing countries, the results allow insights into the consequences of these shifting sources of income may have for goals such as poverty reduction and food security.     

Toxic and harmful algae in the coastal waters of Russia

Toxic algal species of marine and brackish-water plankton, as well as nontoxic microalgae, which are capable of initiating harmful blooms, cause a detriment to human health (seafood poisoning) and often lead to a total crisis of coastal water ecosystems. The Russian coastal waters are inhabited by dozens of toxic and bloom-causing algal species, their toxins are accumulated in the tissues of edible mollusks, and there have been incidents of human poisonings and marine fauna mortality due to these blooms. An analysis of the current situation concerning the problem of toxic algae and harmful blooms of nontoxic species in the seas of Russia provides evidence that it is necessary to create a system of compulsory governmental monitoring of the exploited marine areas to serve as the basis of ecological safety control in the exploitation of the biological resources of the Russian Federation, as well to introduce compulsory sanitary control of diarrheic, paralytic, and amnesic phycotoxins. The compiled summary of algal toxic and potentially toxic species met in the European and Far Eastern seas of Russia is given with notes on their toxicity type and its manifestations.     

Sustainable seafood consumption in China

Changing forms of seafood consumption in China hold immense significance for the marine ecosystems that supply this market, and are a fundamentally important challenge to address for global environmental sustainability. Drawing on recent findings from extensive ethnographic and survey research with seafood traders and consumers in China, this paper analyses policies for improving sustainable seafood consumption in China. The paper evaluates how existing policy initiatives undertaken by civil society and the government are affected by the distinctive social, economic and political context in China, and discusses how future efforts can better build on this context. To improve sustainable seafood consumption will require an effective strategy for working in a market environment characterised by a much greater public interest in food safety than food sustainability, and by a governance environment characterised by the strong role of the state.