The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management

During the past 10 years, the evolution of marine spatial planning (MSP) and ocean zoning has become a crucial step in making ecosystem-based, sea use management a reality. The idea was initially stimulated by international and national interest in developing marine protected areas, e.g., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. More recent attention has been placed on managing the multiple use of marine space, especially in areas where conflicts among users and the environment are already clear, e.g., in the North Sea. Even more recent concern has focused on the need to conserve nature, especially ecologically and biologically sensitive areas, in the context of multi-use planning of ocean space. Despite academic discussions and the fact that some countries already have started implementation, the scope of MSP has not been clearly defined. Terms such as integrated management, marine spatial management, and ocean zoning are all used inconsistently. This is one of the reasons why its importance is not more seriously reflected at the levels of policy and decision-making in most countries. This article attempts to deal with this problem. It describes why MSP is an essential step to achieve ecosystem-based sea use management, how it can be defined and what its core objectives are. The article concludes with an analysis of the use and achievements of MSP worldwide, with particular focus on new approaches in Europe.     

Ocean zoning in the Northwest Atlantic

A workshop held in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, brought together marine policy makers, resource users and experts to discuss spatial planning in the marine environment. Participants explored concepts of ocean zoning and learned from other jurisdictions and related integrated management initiatives. An ocean user perspectives panel featured plenary addresses on the significance of ocean zoning to various sectors. Discussions at the workshop emphasized the need for involving all key players and clearly defining terms used in the spatial planning process.     

Power and perspective: Fisheries and the ocean commons beset by demands of development

Marine renewable energy (MRE), though a relative newcomer to the ocean and coastal commons, has become a significant driver of marine spatial planning in the US, posing particular challenges to commercial fisheries and fishing communities. State and federal agencies with primary oversight for MRE development have focused on the identification of places where MRE might proceed unhindered by other uses, most notably coastal fisheries. These agencies and MRE developers have focused on potential space-use conflict and standard mitigation measures for loss of access to that space. However, discussions with fishery participants and other community members, as well as observations of processes on the US West and East Coasts, reveal a complex, multi-faceted social–ecological system not easily parsed out among users, nor amenable to classic mitigation formulas. Recent ethnographic research on potential space-use conflicts and mitigation for MRE demonstrates that marine space use is dynamic and multi-dimensional, with important linkages among fisheries, communities and other interests. Although experiences vary within and across regions and fishing communities, this research illustrates the weak position of fishing communities in marine spatial planning in the context of MRE development. This paper considers the implications of MRE for US East and West Coast fisheries and fishing communities situated within the larger context of neoliberalism and commodification of the ocean commons.     

Improving fisheries co-management through ecosystem-based spatial management: The Galapagos Marine Reserve

Ecosystem-based spatial management (EBSM) can provide a mechanism for a strategic and integrated plan-based approach to managing human activities in the marine environment. An EBSM approach was adopted in the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) at the end of the 1990s with the adoption of marine zoning. The latter was created under a co-management regime to reduce conflicts among users arising over incompatible demands for ocean space, to mitigate the impact of human activities on sensitive ecological areas, and to contribute to the sustainability of Galapagos fisheries. Unfortunately, the promise of an EBSM approach in the GMR has not been matched by effectiveness in practice, in achieving the established management objectives. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the shortcomings and lessons learned related to planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and adaptation of the GMR's marine zoning scheme, and to provide recommendations to better realize the potential value of the EBSM approach to co-managing the shellfisheries of the GMR.     

Sea use management using a hybrid operational model: Taiwan’s experience

This study proposes a hybrid operational model to manage marine activities. This approach combines cost-benefit analysis (CBA), the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and the Dempster–Shafer theory (DST), and retains the advantages of CBA as well as facilitating the incorporation of incomplete information into the evaluation process. A particular advantage of this hybrid approach is that it can synthesize evaluation results into an easily understood unit: namely, utility. Conflicts between marine resource users (user–user conflicts) and between users and marine environment (user-environment conflicts) can easily be evaluated using this hybrid operational model. A sea use management system is proposed, which incorporates a permitting process and elements of marine spatial planning (MSP). In the proposed system, marine activities are grouped into three clusters based on their potential environmental impacts and exclusive use, then assigned to competent authorities, a panel of experts or government agencies for review and permit approval. This study suggests that the central and local governments share responsibility for approving permits for marine activities. More importantly, it suggests that the integration of marine activities needs to be handled by the central government. A numerical example is used to illustrate the application of the hybrid operational model.     

Guiding ecological principles for marine spatial planning

The declining health of marine ecosystems around the world is evidence that current piecemeal governance is inadequate to successfully support healthy coastal and ocean ecosystems and sustain human uses of the ocean. One proposed solution to this problem is ecosystem-based marine spatial planning (MSP), which is a process that informs the spatial distribution of activities in the ocean so that existing and emerging uses can be maintained, use conflicts reduced, and ecosystem health and services protected and sustained for future generations. Because a key goal of ecosystem-based MSP is to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services that humans want and need, it must be based on ecological principles that articulate the scientifically recognized attributes of healthy, functioning ecosystems. These principles should be incorporated into a decision-making framework with clearly defined targets for these ecological attributes. This paper identifies ecological principles for MSP based on a synthesis of previously suggested and/or operationalized principles, along with recommendations generated by a group of twenty ecologists and marine scientists with diverse backgrounds and perspectives on MSP. The proposed four main ecological principles to guide MSP—maintaining or restoring: native species diversity, habitat diversity and heterogeneity, key species, and connectivity—and two additional guidelines, the need to account for context and uncertainty, must be explicitly taken into account in the planning process. When applied in concert with social, economic, and governance principles, these ecological principles can inform the designation and siting of ocean uses and the management of activities in the ocean to maintain or restore healthy ecosystems, allow delivery of marine ecosystem services, and ensure sustainable economic and social benefits.     

基于CiteSpace的海洋空间规划研究进展分析

文章基于CiteSpace对2000-2020年海洋空间规划研究进行了知识图谱和可视化分析,分析发文量、作者、机构、期刊影响力和合作网络变化,揭示研究热点的变化趋势。研究表明:欧美等经济发达国家和澳大利亚具有较高影响力,国家与机构间合作密切。海洋空间规划研究始终以生态系统和环境保护为中心,研究内容以政策研究和生态环境研究为主,研究热点由关注生态功能转变为以人类活动为主的整体功能规划研究,蓝色经济、蓝色发展是近些年的主要关键词。在海洋开发强度、范围不断增大,全球气候环境频繁变化的背景下,加强海洋观测和数据收集,探索海洋生态系统对环境影响和人类活动响应机制,加强生态模型在海洋应用,细化海洋空间规划管理措施,因海制宜地调整规划方案,实现生态保护和经济发展的齐头并进,是我国海洋空间规划研究的未来方向。     

Exploring stakeholder perceptions of marine management in Bermuda

Given competing objectives vying for space in the marine environment, the island of Bermuda may be an ideal candidate for comprehensive marine spatial planning (MSP). However, faced with other pressing issues, ocean management reform has not yet received significant traction from the government, a pattern seen in many locations. Spatial planning processes often struggle during the proposal, planning, or implementation phases due to stakeholder opposition and/or government wariness to change. Conflict among stakeholders about management reform has also proven to be a deterrent to MSP application in many locations. With these obstacles in mind, a detailed stakeholder survey was conducted in Bermuda to determine awareness, attitudes and perceptions regarding ocean health, threats to ocean environments, the effectiveness of current ocean management, and possible future changes to management. How perceptions vary for different types of stakeholders and how attitudes about specific concerns relate to attitudes about management changes were examined. Overall, the results indicate a high degree of support for spatial planning and ocean zoning and a high level of concordance even among stakeholder groups that are typically assumed to have conflicting agendas. However, attitudes were not entirely homogeneous, particularly when delving into details about specific management changes. For example, commercial fishers were generally less in favor, relative to other stakeholder groups, of increasing regulations on ocean uses with the notable exception of regulations for recreational fishing. Given the results of this survey, public support is likely to be high for government action focused on ocean management reform in Bermuda.     

韩国《海洋空间规划与管理法》概况及对我国的启示

海洋空间规划作为重要的海洋空间管理工具,其重要性日益凸显。韩国为科学管理有限的海洋空间资源,合理协调用海空间矛盾,有效保护海洋生态环境,于2018年4月17日颁布《韩国海洋空间规划与管理法》。该法从早期海岸带空间管理扩大到全部管辖海域,从海洋空间资源的无序开发到海域整体性开发,统筹兼顾、突出海域核心价值,推动海洋的可持续利用。文章在梳理韩国海洋空间规划发展沿革的基础上,全面解析了《韩国海洋空间规划与管理法》的内容,包括其空间规划的分类、内容、范围、期限、原则、区域划分等,分析了中韩两国海洋空间规划在多方面的异同,在此基础上得出其对完善中国海洋空间规划制度的启示。     

The role of marine spatial planning in sea use management: The Belgian case

The expansion of offshore activities and the increasing need to meet international and national commitments to biodiversity conservation have led to an enhanced interest in marine spatial planning (MSP) as a tool for sea use management. Several European countries, on their own initiative or driven by European legislation and policy, have taken global leadership in implementing MSP. This article will discuss the Belgian experiences with MSP. It will give a short historical overview based on legal developments and review the implementation process of a ‘Master Plan’ as a spatial management policy for the Belgian Part of the North Sea. Additionally, this article will reflect on the research that has been done in Belgium to apply a land-use planning approach to the marine environment. The MSP process in Belgium shows that a spatial approach to sea use management is possible despite the lack of a legal zoning framework. However, it concludes that a legal basis for MSP, in addition to the current permit system, would provide a more strategic and integrated framework for ecosystem-based, sea use management.     

The Convention on Biological Diversity's Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas: Origins,development, and current status

In 2008, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted seven criteria to identify Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas (EBSAs) “…in need of protection, in open ocean waters and deep sea habitats”. This paper reviews the history of the development of the “EBSA process”, which was originally driven by the commitment to establish marine protected areas in areas beyond national jurisdiction, but which has since broadened to encompass the possibility of informing marine spatial planning and other activities, both within and beyond national jurisdiction. Additionally, the paper summarizes ongoing efforts through CBD regional workshops to describe EBSAs and the development of the EBSA Repository, where information on these areas is to be stored. The overlap between the EBSA criteria and biodiversity criteria suites used by various authorities in areas beyond national jurisdiction is illustrated. The EBSA process has reached a critical juncture, whereby a large percentage of the global ocean has been considered by the regional workshops, but the procedure by which these areas can be incorporated into formal management structures has not yet been fully developed. Emerging difficulties regarding the mandate to describe, identify, endorse, or adopt EBSAs, are discussed.     

Submarine cables: a challenge for ocean management

The international submarine cable industry is a major component of the global telecommunications system, providing important services and requiring increased levels of protection for the maintenance of global economic and maritime security, broadly defined. An overview is given of the submarine cable industry, including its technological developments, legal aspects, security considerations, and implications for integrated ocean planning and management. In the context of multiple ocean use, submarine cables can cause spatial conflicts with other ocean users, particularly the fishing industry. Issues to be examined include compensation for lost or damaged gear, legal liability for cable damage, and regulation and licensing of cables on the seabed of the continental shelf and the high seas. Recent industry-to-industry agreements and programs for compensation to fishers in the USA and Canada are significant advancements in the implementation of integrated approaches to ocean management and planning. The development of transparent and stable interdepartmental processes for the coordinated planning, management and regulation of submarine cables is required for national EEZs. The regulation of international cable industry practices must be harmonized with national management approaches.     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

Transitional measures to combine two global ocean dumping treaties into a single treaty

The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972 (the London Convention, or LC) established a global regime for the protection of the marine environment from pollution caused by ocean dumping and incineration at sea. In 1996, at the Special Meeting of the LC, the Contracting Parties to the LC adopted the 1996 Protocol to the London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter 1972 (the London Protocol, or LP), which updates and improves the LC and should eventually supersede it. On March 24, 2006, 10 years after its adoption, the LP entered into force. Not all of the LC Parties have ratified the LP; many countries are still working towards accession, and some countries not Party to either regime are still ratifying the Convention instead of the Protocol. The LP Parties have striven to develop a well-functioning compliance mechanism and at the same time address newly emerging issues threatening the marine environment. Conversely, the LC Parties have agreed not to amend the LC further. This tension makes it increasingly uncomfortable to continue to hold the meetings of the two governing bodies concurrently, as is now done to maximize organizational efficiency. This paper attempts to remove some of the confusion caused by the existence of these two seemingly identical but in fact distinct global marine environment treaties. It further proposes some transitional measures to merge the LC into the LP to form a single global dumping treaty to protect the marine environment in the 21st century.     

海洋环境有机磷酸酯的来源、分布与生物地球化学过程

继多种溴代阻燃剂加入《斯德哥尔摩公约》持久性有机污染物黑名单后,有机磷酸酯（organophosphate esters, OPEs）作为替代品,生产和使用量日益增加。研究表明OPEs可通过大气长距离传输、河流输运等方式进入海洋环境,并对海洋生态系统产生一定风险。本文详细梳理了海洋大气、水体和沉积物介质,以及海洋生物体中OPEs的含量水平和分布特征,并探讨了OPEs的海气交换、大气沉降、洋流输运等物理过程,以及生物富集与转化、生物泵耦合和微生物降解等生物地球化学过程。考虑到OPEs仍在大量生产和使用并将持续进入海洋环境,系统的海洋OPEs连续监测和生态风险评估亟待开展。     

Linking marine protected areas to integrated coastal and ocean management: A review of theory and practice

If managed in isolation, coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) are vulnerable to natural resource development and exploitation occurring outside these areas—in particular, overfishing, alteration and destruction of habitats, and water pollution. Thus, protection of coastal and marine areas—of species, habitats, landscapes, and seascapes—should be integrated into spatial development strategies for larger areas, under the umbrella of integrated coastal and ocean management (ICM). This is typically easier said than done, since the actors involved in MPA networks and in ICM programs are often different, reflecting different cultures, networks of relationships, ministries, and goals and motivations.This article reviews the ecological, social and economic linkages between MPAs and the governance of broader ocean and coastal areas; sets forth nine guiding principles for managing MPAs within an ICM context; reviews work conducted under the Convention on Biological Diversity to operationalize the linkages between ICM and MPAs; and develops strategic guidance for addressing these linkages. The article ends with a call to bring together the diverse communities involved in marine protected areas, coastal and ocean management, and watershed management to collaborate in national-level ocean and coastal planning, including in the designation of networks of marine protected areas.     

论福建海洋资源的合理开发

本文分析了当前福建海洋开发存在的问题，主要是缺乏对海洋开发的统一规划与管理，开发利用盲目性较大；近海捕捞过度，渔业资源衰退；技术水平较低，综合开发不够；环保重视不够，局部质量较差。要尽快解决这些问题，必须加强宣传教育，提高海洋意识；加强宏观调控，统筹规划管理；改造传统产业，发展新兴产业；完善法规体系，严格依法管海；依靠科技兴海，提高开发水平；开发保护并重，保护生态环境。     

He who hesitates is lost: Why conservation in the Mediterranean Sea is necessary and possible now

Although significant advancements on protecting marine biodiversity and ecosystems of the Mediterranean Sea have been made, much remains to be done to achieve the targets set by the Convention for Biological Diversity (and the Barcelona Convention) and ratified by the 21 Mediterranean governments. Particularly, these targets require the design and implementation of an ecologically representative network of marine protected areas that covers 10% of the Mediterranean surface by 2020. Despite the many efforts to gather spatial information about threats to the Mediterranean and conservation planning initiatives that identify sensitive areas for conservation, we are far from achieving this target. In this paper, we briefly review existing and proposed conservation initiatives at various scales throughout the Mediterranean to recognise those that have political endorsement and those that serve more as lobbying tools. We then propose a model process that can be applied to advance marine spatial planning within the eleven ecologically and biologically significant areas (EBSAs) through a multi-step process designed for moving conservation forward in this particularly complex region. The proposed process combines tenets of professional urban/regional planning and systematic conservation planning. As shown with two specific examples, despite some conventional wisdom, there is enough information on the Mediterranean Sea to move forward with ecosystem-based marine spatial management for conservation purposes using the EBSAs as a starting point - and the time is right to do so.     

基于生态系统的挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划

为推动我国国土空间规划新视角下的海洋空间规划实践,提升我国海洋综合管理水平,文章概述基于生态系统的挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划的主要内容,并重点分析挪威海的海洋环境空间管理措施。研究结果表明:挪威海海洋环境综合管理计划是基于生态系统的海洋空间规划,建立在良好的海洋环境状况和海洋生物多样性与其栖息地的保护基础之上,以可持续利用海洋资源来实现海洋产业的价值创造与生态系统服务供给;该管理计划制定一系列海洋环境保护措施和人类活动空间管理措施,以实现挪威海海洋环境的有效保护和海洋经济产业的有效管理;挪威海海洋空间规划的发展可为我国国土空间规划涉海内容的编制、海洋资源的可持续利用与海洋产业的快速健康发展提供重要参考。     

海洋、海洋经济与人类未来

正确认识和理解海洋,对规划海洋经济是有参考价值的。从海洋资源的分类、储量与合理开发利用,海洋环境与可持续性发展的辩证关系,阐述了海洋、海洋经济与人类未来的关系。合理开发海洋资源与保护海洋环境是维护人类生存的需要,是全人类共同的义务与责任。