A numerical model for dynamic soil liquefaction analysis

This paper presents an effective stress-based numerical model, which can be used to obtain pore pressure build up and consequent loss of soil strength due to earthquake-induced shaking. The main advantage of the new method is that it needs few model parameters compared to many existing effective stress-based ground response analysis methods. The pore pressure generation is calculated using the equivalent cycle pore pressure model developed by Seed et al. [J Geotech Engng Div, ASCE 102 (1976) 323] but the equations are used in a different manner. Pore pressure generation calculated by the new method and the equivalent cycle method for different load patterns shows that the new method can predict pore pressures which are in better agreement with experimental data, irrespective of the loading pattern. The equivalent cycle method predicts results in agreement with experimental data only when the loading pattern is highly irregular, and tends to under-predict pore pressure ratios for other loading patterns. To demonstrate the ability of the new method in simulating earthquake-induced site response and liquefaction-related ground deformations, the Kobe, 1995 earthquake has been analysed. The results obtained from the new analysis agree reasonably well with recorded accelerations and lateral ground displacements at Port Island, Kobe.     

Assessment of soil liquefaction incorporating earthquake characteristics

This paper investigates the effect of nature of the earthquake on the assessment of liquefaction potential of a soil deposit during earthquake loading. Here, the nature of the earthquake is included via the parameter V, the ‘pseudo-velocity’, that is the gross area under the acceleration record of the earthquake at any depth below the ground surface. By analysing a number of earthquake records from different parts of the world, a simple method has been outlined to assess the liquefaction potential of a soil deposit based on the pseudo-velocity. For many earthquakes occurred in the past, acceleration records are available or can be computed at the ground level or some other depth below the ground surface. Therefore, this method is a useful tool at the preliminary design stage to determine the liquefaction potential before going into a detailed analysis. Validation of the method is carried out using a database of case histories consisting of standard penetration test values, acceleration records at the ground surface and field observations of liquefaction/non-liquefaction. It can be seen that the proposed method has the ability to predict soil liquefaction potential accurately, despite its simplicity.     

Soil behaviour under dynamic loading conditions: experimental procedures and statistical trends

Soil behaviour under dynamic conditions is a crucial component of several studies concerned with the environmental effects of earthquakes, risk assessment and geological hazards. This work presents experimental procedures for studying soil behaviour under repeated loading and examines the role of uncertain parameters in the expected soil performance. Laboratory techniques are used to obtain stress controlled cyclic triaxial soil measurements, and a series of test programs are performed in order to study general statistical trends in the response of soils under simulated earthquake conditions, to investigate the processes causing soil failure, and to examine factors that may influence the results obtained in the laboratory.This work has been supported by grants from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Grant no. P42-ES05948 and P30-ES10126) and the Army Research Office (DAAG55-98-1-0289).     

Comparison of liquefaction potential of loess in Lanzhou, China, and Memphis, USA

This paper presents an evaluation of the liquefaction potential of loess in Lanzhou, China, and Memphis, USA. The topography, stratigraphy, and genesis of loess in these two areas were investigated and compared. Several loess samples in each study area were taken and their physical indices were determined. In addition, the microstructures of these loess samples were investigated using an electron microscope, and dynamic triaxial tests were performed using an artificial seismic wave. The results of this investigation indicated that both Lanzhou loess and Memphis loess have a potential for liquefaction, but Memphis loess is less susceptible to liquefaction. Furthermore, Lanzhou loess and Memphis loess behave differently during ground shaking.     

A micro-mechanical investigation of the dynamic response and liquefaction of saturated granular soils

A coupled continuum-discrete hydromechanical model was utilized to analyze the meso-scale pore fluid flow and micro-scale solid phase deformation of saturated granular soils. The fluid motion was idealized using averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the discrete element method was employed to model the solid particles. Well established semi-empirical relationships were used to quantify the fluid–particle interactions. Numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the mechanisms of granular deposit liquefaction in the presence of a critical upward pore fluid flow as well as when subjected to a dynamic base excitation. The outcome of these simulations was consistent with experimental observations and revealed valuable information on the micro-mechanical characteristics of soil liquefaction and associated loss of stiffness and strength.     

Characterization of the uncertainty of the Robertson and Wride model for liquefaction potential evaluation

As the profession moves toward the performance-based earthquake engineering design, it becomes more important and pressing to examine the uncertainty of the limit state model used for liquefaction potential evaluation. In this paper, the uncertainty of the Robertson and Wride model, a simplified model for liquefaction resistance and potential evaluation based on cone penetration test, is investigated in detail for its model uncertainty in the framework of first-order reliability analysis. The uncertainties of the parameters used in the Robertson and Wride model are also examined. The model uncertainty is estimated by calibration with a fairly large set of case histories. The results show that the uncertainty of the Robertson and Wride model may be characterized with a mean-to-nominal of 0.94 and a coefficient of variation of 0.15 based on the case histories examined.     

Plasticity model for sand under small and large cyclic strains: a multiaxial formulation

This paper presents the multiaxial formulation of a plasticity model for sand under cyclic shearing. The model adopts a kinematic hardening circular cone as the yield surface and three non-circular conical surfaces corresponding to the deviatoric stress ratios at phase transformation, peak strength and critical state. The shape of the non-circular surfaces is formulated in accordance with the experimentally established failure criteria, while their size is related to the value of the state parameter ψ. To simulate cyclic response under small and large shear strain amplitudes without a change in model parameters, it was found necessary to introduce: (a) a non-linear hysteretic (Ramberg–Osgood type) formulation for the strain rate of elastic states and (b) an empirical index of the effect of fabric evolution during shearing which scales the plastic modulus. This index is estimated in terms of a macroscopic second-order fabric tensor, which develops as a function of the plastic volumetric strain increment and the loading direction in the deviatoric plane. Comparison of simulations to pertinent data from 27 resonant column, cyclic triaxial and cyclic direct simple shear tests provide a measure for the overall accuracy of the model.     

荷载大小对随机波与定次数波作用下土体变形关系的影响

通过砂土的一系列动三轴实验,研究不规则地震荷载作用下与定次数等幅荷载作用下土体变形间的关系,给出了地震荷载的大小对二者间关系的影响规律。结果表明:真实地震荷载下土的变形发展与等幅正弦荷载明显不同,应变发展时程的形态主要受地震动的形态控制;若采用以20周作为标准作用次数的等幅荷载代替不规则的地震荷载,修正真实地震应力下的残余变形,荷载大小对随机波与定次数波作用下土体变形间关系没有影响。     

PEER-NGL project: Open source global database and model development for the next-generation of liquefaction assessment procedures

The Next-Generation Liquefaction (NGL) project was launched to (1) substantially improve the quality, transparency, and accessibility of case history data related to ground failure; (2) provide a coordinated framework for supporting studies to augment case history data for conditions important for applications but poorly represented in empirical databases; and (3) provide an open, collaborative process for model development in which developer teams have access to common resources and share ideas and results during model development. Work to date has focused on compiling high-value case histories, developing a database template, and planning for needed supporting studies. We describe the project motivation, explain and illustrate how data resources will be compiled and organized, summarize preliminary results from ongoing data collection, describe needed supporting studies, and review project status and next steps.     

Influence of the ground profile on the reduction of earthquake motion at the filled man-made islands in the Kobe harbor during the 1995 Hyogoken Nambu earthquake

During the 1995 Hyogoken Nambu earthquake in Kobe, the ground motion at the filled man-made islands in the Kobe harbor was not as severe as that at the mainland. The building damage was also less compared to that on the mainland. It was found by comparative study of earthquake records that the magnitude of acceleration response on the ground surface decreases at the islands as opposed to the mainland. One dimensional effective stress analysis is adopted in this study. Input data has been generated from test results, e.g. the SPT N-value by standard penetration test and shear wave velocity V_s by PS logging. Results obtained by the analyses showed good agreement with the observed records, which is an indication of the suitability of the adopted analysis procedure. From this study, the followings are concluded. By the increase of SPT N-value of the filled layers, liquefaction near ground surface is restrained and damage modes such as ejection of water and soil can be prevented. Since the ground profile at the islands is that considerably soft filled layer and marine clay layers, etc. are present and the thickness of the surface layer is large, the initial natural period of the ground is above 1 s and the natural period is elongated further under the earthquake excitation, which is deemed to be the principal reason for the reduction of the earthquake motion at the ground surface.     

Fault induced permanent ground deformations—an experimental comparison of wet and dry soil and implications for buried structures

Fault surface ruptures constitute a great risk to human lives, buildings and infrastructure. Despite this few building codes contain risk reducing provisions. Experiments provided results for establishing design rules in terms of possible dislocation and failure strains. Dry and wet soil behave substantially different. A brief discussion on counteracting effects of the wet soil on the interaction between a buried structure and the surrounding ground is included.     

异常高压对砂砾岩弹性性质影响的实验机理研究与压力预测新模型——以准噶尔盆地玛湖凹陷北斜坡三叠系为例

准噶尔盆地西北缘玛湖地区二三叠系的砂砾岩中已经发现了多个高效油气藏,勘探实践已经证实该区砂砾岩储层中广泛发育异常高压,尤其是在近生烃中心的斜坡区.正是由于异常高压的存在,玛湖凹陷斜坡区砂砾岩储层的弹性性质呈现出一些特殊的现象与规律.本项研究依据玛湖地区63块样品的岩石物理测试结果、10余口井的实测地层压力资料、常规测井和录井资料,对砂砾岩弹性参数随异常高压的变化规律进行了深入分析.结果表明,玛湖凹陷斜坡区砂砾岩受母岩区矿物成分和异常高压的影响,其弹性特征与Casatgna砂岩线和李庆忠砂岩线表征的常规砂岩储层的弹性特征具有较大差异.与以上两种砂岩相比,具有相同密度的研究区砂砾岩样品纵横波速度较低,异常高压的发育阻碍了岩石的胶结作用是造成速度较低的主要原因.在异常高压发育区岩石样品的胶结程度普遍较差,速度也普遍降低,并且这种现象对纵横波速度的影响规律还存在区别,对横波速度的影响更大.为了定量地研究异常高压对砂砾岩储层纵横波速度变化的影响规律,本文设计了系统的岩石物理实验,分别测量获得固定地层压力以及固定差应力等条件下样品的纵横波速度,从实验上解释了异常高压对玛湖凹陷斜坡区砂砾岩储层弹性性质特殊变化规律的影响机理.为了提高在研究区利用地震资料预测地层压力的精度,本论文总结了不同弹性参数随地层压力和差应力之间的变化规律,改进有效应力系数的计算方法,建立了适合玛湖地区砂砾岩储层的地层压力预测新模型.最后,将新模型成功应用于玛湖凹陷北斜坡M131井区.从预测结果与实测结果的对比来看,在钻井位置,预测的压力系数与实测的压力系数吻合较好.另外,预测的压力系数分布规律也符合玛湖凹陷斜坡区异常高压的形成机理.

     

High chloride concentrations in the soil and groundwater under an oak hedge in the West of France: an indicator of evapotranspiration and water movement

Chloride is a major anion in soil water and its concentration rises essentially as a function of evapotranspiration. Compared to herbaceous vegetation, high transpiration rates are measured for isolated trees, shelterbelts or hedgerows. This article deals with the influence of a tree hedge on the soil and groundwater Cl^? concentrations and the possibility of using Cl^? as an indicator of transpiration and water movements near the tree rows. Cl^? concentrations were measured over 1 year at different depths in the unsaturated zone and in the groundwater along a transect intersecting a bottomland oak hedge. We observed a strong spatial heterogeneity of Cl^? concentrations, with very high values up to 2 g l^?1 in the unsaturated zone and 1·2 g l^?1 in the upper part of the groundwater. This contrasts with the low and homogeneous concentrations (60–70 mg l^?1) in the deeper part of the groundwater. Cl^? accumulation in the unsaturated zone at the end of the vegetation season allows us to identify the active root zone extension of trees. In winter, upslope of the tree row, downwards leaching partly renews the soil solution in the root zone, while the slow water movement under the trees or farther downslope results in Cl^? accumulation and leads to a salinization of the soil and groundwater. This salinization is of the same order as experimental conditions produce negative effects on oak seedlings. The measurement of Cl^? concentrations in the unsaturated zone under tree rows at the end of the vegetation season would indicate whether certain topographic, pedological or climatic conditions are likely to favour a strong salinization of the soil, as observed in the present study. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

数值模拟静态应力扰动下的断层失稳:结果分析兼与Dieterich模型和Coulomb模型的对比

基于大量岩石力学实验,Dieterich和其他研究者(Dieterich, 1978; Ruina, 1983)首先提出了描述岩石摩擦过程的速率-状态摩擦定律(R-S摩擦定律).如今R-S摩擦定律已成为研究地震成核等地震演化机制的有效手段.Dieterich (1992, 1994)最早提出了描述受静态剪应力扰动后断层失稳时间提前或推后的余震触发机制的解析模型.现在Dieterich模型已经成为解释余震随时间衰减规律的Omori定律等地震观测现象的有力工具.与之相对应,广泛使用的Coulomb应力失稳模型也可以给出断层受到静态剪应力扰动后,断层失稳时间的提前和推后量.Dieterich模型和Coulomb应力失稳模型基于不同的物理方法,所以在进行地震危险性评估时,二者均有各自的局限性.本文利用R-S摩擦定律控制的1-D弹簧-滑块模型,模拟计算了理论地震循环以及在不同静态剪切应力扰动下,失稳时间的提前和推后量的变化情况,然后将计算得到的时间提前和推后量分别与Dieterich模型和Coulomb模型的相应计算结果进行了定量化对比和差异性分析,并给出了相应的解释.数值模拟结果显示,对于R-S摩擦定律在参数不变的条件下,断层模型失稳时间的提前和推后量的大小强烈依赖于静态剪应力扰动的大小和作用时间,而且绝对值相同的正、负向静态剪应力扰动造成的失稳时间的提前和推后量的变化情况并不完全一致.在震后松弛/滑移阶段和闭锁阶段,时间提前和推后量是常数,且随静态剪应力扰动绝对值的增大而增大,两者的比值接近于1.0,这与Dieterich模型和Coulomb模型的结果是一致的,相应的差值小于两模型结果的10%.而在自加速阶段,模拟计算结果则存在与Dieterich模型和Coulomb模型结果不同的特征.首先,在自加速阶段模拟计算结果均偏离Coulomb模型,而且时间提前和推后量的比值小于1.0,相异于Coulomb模型的论断.不过当受到正向静态剪应力扰动后,Dieterich模型的结果和模拟计算结果是一致的,最大相差量不超过Dieterich模型结果的7%,可接近0.对于负向静态剪应力扰动,当其绝对值较小时,Dieterich模型的结果很接近模拟计算结果,相差量不超过该结果的14%.但对于绝对值较大的情况,模拟计算结果远大于Dieterich模型的结果,最大可达Dieterich模型结果的35倍,这是由于负向静态剪应力扰动后使得Ω=δθ/dc>>1的条件不再成立,进而使得Dieterich模型不再成立.总的来说,与模拟计算相比Dieterich模型可以很好地描述1-D断层受扰后失稳时间提前和推后量的变化情况,并且可以体现出正、负静态剪切应力扰动后失稳时间提前量和推后量变化的差异性,而Coulomb模型则不能完整地给出受到静态剪应力扰动后断层失稳时间提前或推后的估计值.     

历史大地震断层滑动模型的建立及其对同震数值计算的影响——以1920年宁夏海原MS8.5大地震为例

大地震的发生会引起区域位移场和应力场发生变化,进而改变区域内及临近断层的应力状态和地震活动性.目前,研究学者可据已有的断层滑动模型来计算分析大地震同震应力变化,同时采用库仑应力触发理论来进一步分析震后余震分布和断层危险性.然而,历史上曾经发生过不少大地震,例如,1920年的海原M_S8.5大地震,是全球范围内少见的特大地震之一.局限于无确切的地震台站地震波等资料,前人在研究历史地震的影响时往往给出一些简单的断层滑动模型,将断层面上错动量视为均匀分布.为更准确地了解历史地震对后续地震的影响,基于前人研究和一般地震滑动形态分布规律及地震反射剖面等资料,以海原M_S8.5大地震为例,探讨了如何建立海原大地震断层滑动模型,并分别搭建了简单断层滑动模型和复杂断层滑动模型的全球同震横向不均匀并行椭球型地球模型.通过对海原M_S8.5地震的同震位移场和应力场的计算,发现采用复杂断层滑动模型比简单断层滑动模型地表位错分布更切合实际.同时,进一步计算和分析了此次大地震对青藏高原东北缘近100年历史地震和周围断层的应力触发作用,得出断层滑动模型对同震计算结果的影响集中在发震断层附近而对远场影响较小.