Towards earthquake early warning for the Rion-Antirion bridge,Greece

Patras is the third largest city in Greece and an ideal candidate for earthquake early warning (EEW) applications due to its high seismic hazard, its existing research infrastructure and the presence of critical structures such as the Rion-Antirion bridge. Patras is located a few hundred kilometres from the Hellenic Arc, where very strong and potentially damaging earthquakes occur. This distance is large enough to allow a few tens of seconds of warning time prior to significant shaking, provided earthquakes are timely detected by a dense seismic network. Within the framework of the EC-funded project REAKT, the Virtual Seismologist (VS) EEW software was installed at Patras Seismological Laboratory. Its initial performance evaluation is presented here. In general VS provides magnitudes similar to the official, manually revised ones. Given the current station density and network telemetry, the average time that VS needs to deliver the first magnitude estimate is rather large, of the order of tens of seconds and not yet satisfactory for routine operational use of EEW. Even so, the system is able to provide up to 10 s of warning time prior to S-wave arrivals for events occurring on the Hellenic Arc. Our results indicate that the seismic networks in Greece need enhancements for regional EEW, either by adding stations or by upgrading the hardware to reduce delays. The application of an EEW system in the area is promising and, once operational, capable of mitigating earthquake risk.     

Earthquake early warning as a tool for improving society’s resilience and crisis response

Increasing vulnerability of metropolitan areas to earthquake and the very low probability level at which short term earthquake forecasting is possible make earthquake early warning methods (EEW) the main viable alternative for effective risk reduction in cities. Preventive actions, such as retrofitting and building and the diffusion of construction codes, are of course essential. They are not sufficient. A substantial proportion of the population in areas of higher earthquake hazard still reside in buildings that do not meet modern earthquake resistant standards, and cannot currently be strengthened in an economically viable manner. As demonstrated in Japan EEW has the potential of significantly contributing to reduce individual vulnerability of urban population to earthquakes. Future research on EEW should be focused on its implementation to protect lifelines, infrastructures and strategic buildings, and it should include training of administrators and people who can fully exploit the technological advantages offered by EEW systems. In particular it should foresee extensive cost-benefit analysis for each potential application, the identification and solution of legal problems (such as liability in the event of false or missed alarms), education and training, both for mitigation and response, as well as detection and processing within 1 s of the first seismic wave arrivals. Further objectives include the development of people-centred EEW, specialized IT and decision making support systems, integration of sensors, communications and decision making systems, integration into programs of eco-sustainable development, and integration with other EW systems (all hazard systems).     

State-of-the art and future of earthquake early warning in the European region

European researchers and seismic networks are active in developing new approaches to earthquake early warning (EEW), implementing and operating test EEW systems, and in some cases, offering operational EEW to end users. We present the key recent developments in EEW research in Europe, describe the networks and regions where EEW is currently in testing or development, and highlight the two systems in Turkey and Romania that currently provide operational systems to a limited set of end users.     

Expected loss‐based alarm threshold set for earthquake early warning systems

Earthquake early warning systems (EEWS) seem to have potential as tools for real‐time seismic risk management and mitigation. In fact, although the evacuation of buildings requires warning time not available in many urbanized areas threatened by seismic hazard, they may still be used for the real‐time protection of critical facilities using automatic systems in order to reduce the losses subsequent to a catastrophic event. This is possible due to the real‐time seismology, which consists of methods and procedures for the rapid estimation of earthquake features, as magnitude and location, based on measurements made on the first seconds of the P‐waves. An earthquake engineering application of earthquake early warning (EEW) may be intended as a system able to issue the alarm, if some recorded parameter exceeds a given threshold, to activate risk mitigation actions before the quake strikes at a site of interest. Feasibility analysis and design of such EEWS require the assessment of the expected loss reduction due to the security action and set of the alarm threshold. In this paper a procedure to carry out these tasks in the performance‐based earthquake engineering probabilistic framework is proposed. A merely illustrative example refers to a simple structure assumed to be a classroom. Structural damage and non‐structural collapses are considered; the security action is to shelter occupants below the desks. The cost due to a false alarm is assumed to be related to the interruption of didactic activities. Results show how the comparison of the expected losses, for the alarm‐issuance and non‐issuance cases, allows setting the alarm threshold on a quantitative and consistent basis, and how it may be a tool for the design of engineering applications of EEW. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于支持向量机的2021年2月13日日本福岛近海Mj7.3级地震震级估算

2021年2月13日日本福岛县近海发生M_j7.3级地震,触发了日本气象厅地震预警系统,系统在首台触发后5.6s发出震级为M_j6.3级的预警第1报,首台触发后10s对公众发布警报、预警震级为M_j6.4级。基于多类型特征参数输入的机器学习支持向量机震级估算模型（SVM-M）,利用2021年2月13日日本福岛县近海M_j7.3级地震获取的日本K-net强震动观测数据,分析SVM-M模型在该次地震中首台触发初期（首台触发后1~10s）的震级估算效能。结果表明:SVM-M震级估算模型,在首台触发后1s即可给出M_j6.3级的震级估算结果,与日本气象厅在首台触发后5.6s发布的预警第1报震级相同;随着时间窗的增加,首台触发后5s和10s,SVM-M模型的震级估算结果分别是M_j6.7级和M_j6.6级,均大于日本气象厅首台触发后10s对公众发布警报的预警震级。该次地震的离线模拟结果表明:SVM-M模型可在地震发生初期有效提高地震预警震级确定的准确性和时效性。     

Performance-based earthquake early warning

Significant investments are undergoing internationally to develop earthquake early warning (EEW) systems. So far, reasonably, the most of the research in this field was lead by seismologists as the issues to determine essential feasibility of EEW were mainly related to the earthquake source. Many of them have been brilliantly solved, and the principles of this discipline are collected in the so-called real-time seismology. On the other hand, operating EEW systems rely on general-purpose intensity measures as proxies for the impending ground motion potential and are suitable for population alert. In fact, to date, comparatively little attention was given to EEW by earthquake engineering, and design approaches for structure-specific EEW are mostly lacking. Applications to site-specific systems have not been extensively investigated and EEW convenience is not yet proven except a few pioneering cases, although the topic is certainly worthwhile. For example, in structure-specific EEW the determination of appropriate alarm thresholds is important when the false alarm may induce significant losses; similarly, economic appeal with respect to other risk mitigation strategies as seismic upgrade should be assessed. In the paper the least issues to be faced in the design of engineering applications of EEW are reviewed and some work done in this direction is discussed. The review presented intends to summarize the work of the author and co-workers in this field illustrating a possible performance-based approach for the design of structure-specific applications of EEW.     

福建省地震台网预警能力评估

由于常用的均方根值法和噪声功率谱法不能消除不同传感器记录的噪声干扰,为提高噪声水平计算的准确度,本文选用最大概率峰值位移作为背景噪声评估指标。基于可靠的噪声数据,借鉴震级-最大距离监测能力法并考虑预警时效,提出了地震预警最小震级评估方法,系统评估福建三类传感器网及其融合网的地震预警最小震级和预警首报时间。结果表明：测震强震融合网的地震预警最小震级高于单测震网,但明显低于强震网;强震烈度计融合网与单烈度计网的结果相近;三网融合后95%区域的地震预警最小震级约为M_L3.2。由于烈度计网比测震和强震网密集,其预警首报时间最短;三网融合相对于单测震网或单强震网,其震后地震预警首报时间得到了明显缩短,预计95%区域的首报时间为4—6 s。本文研究为福建省的台网布局的优化和重点区域监测能力的提升提供了参考依据。     

Earthquake early warning scenarios at critical facilities in the Eastern Caribbean

A feasibility study of an earthquake early warning (EEW) system was conducted for the Eastern Caribbean region using scenario earthquakes, corresponding to the maximum credible earthquakes and to the earthquakes associated with a return period of 475 years. Broadband synthetic seismograms were produced at selected critical facilities, where there is potential interest in the installation of an EEW system. The expected damage was derived from the synthetic seismograms and compared with the lead-time determined for both a regional and on-site EEW configuration. Next, the Virtual Seismologist EEW algorithm, as included in SeisComP3, was tested. Additional broadband synthetic seismograms were produced for the stations in the Eastern Caribbean seismic networks in order to simulate the real time behaviour of the seismic networks during the occurrence of the synthetic earthquakes and to assess the predictive capacity of the selected ground motion prediction equation. Expected peak ground parameters and lead-times at the critical facilities constitute the major outcome of the study.     

全球地震早期预警研究综述

近年来地震预警技术在国际上得到迅速的发展,并有成功预警且收到减灾实效的先例.本文系统介绍了地震早期预警的方法,包括波前探测、P波应用、现地预警和区域预警;介绍了地震早期预警系统在墨西哥、日本、土耳其、中国台湾和罗马尼亚等国家和地区的应用情况.还对地震预警中目前存在的问题和挑战以及远景进行了分析.     

Earthquake early warning and operational earthquake forecasting as real-time hazard information to mitigate seismic risk at nuclear facilities

Based on our experience in the project REAKT, we present a methodological framework to evaluate the potential benefits and costs of using earthquake early warning (EEW) and operational earthquake forecasting (OEF) for real-time mitigation of seismic risk at nuclear facilities. We focus on evaluating the reliability, significance and usefulness of the aforementioned real-time risk-mitigation tools and on the communication of real-time earthquake information to end-users. We find that EEW and OEF have significant potential for the reduction of seismic risk at nuclear plants, although much scientific research and testing is still necessary to optimise their operation for these sensitive and highly-regulated facilities. While our test bed was Switzerland, the methodology presented here is of general interest to the community of EEW researchers and end-users and its scope is significantly beyond its specific application within REAKT.     

地震预警震级计算方法研究综述

地震预警系统是减轻地震灾害的有效手段之一,世界上多个国家和地区都已经建立了地震预警系统,并在实际应用中取得了显著的减灾实效.由于地震预警系统应用中的高度时效性要求,预警震级计算是整个地震预警系统中最重要也是最困难的一部分.本文回顾总结了地震预警研究中采用的一些震级计算方法,并将其归纳为三大类算法:与初始周期相关的算法、与初始幅值相关的算法和与初始强度相关的算法.对每种算法都做了详尽介绍和仔细分析,同时列举出与该算法相关的研究成果.通过对这些算法的分析总结并结合我国地震观测台网的实际情况,作者推荐τc、Pd两种方法作为我国地震预警系统建设中优先采用的两种预警震级算法.     

Structural monitoring and earthquake early warning systems for the AHEPA hospital in Thessaloniki

This study aims at presenting the analyses of monitoring data that have been used in the context of structural monitoring and Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) for a hospital building in Thessaloniki. Permanent and temporary instrumentation arrays, implemented under the responsibility of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (SDGEE-AUTH) in close cooperation with German Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) are presented. The ambient noise data recorded at the temporarily installed networks are used for the dynamic characterization of the building based on both vibrational and waveform approaches. Moreover, long-term ambient noise recordings from the permanent array installed within the hospital are used for the investigation of the daily and seasonal wandering of the building resonance frequencies related to environmental effects. The modal identification results are used in a comprehensive framework for the computation of the up-to-date fragility curves representing the actual structural state considering aging effects of the construction materials, possible pre-existing damages and changes in the geometry and mass distribution. The building-specific fragility functions are integrated into two independent EEW systems and rapid damage assessment approaches, namely the PRESTo software and an onsite EEW algorithm on the instruments of the permanent array, to provide the expected level of damage after strong ground shaking at the monitored building. The implemented monitoring networks and the developed operational tools can be used in the context of seismic risk mitigation and preparedness for structural safety assessment under earthquake loading.     

地震预警实质的探讨

随着国家地震烈度速报与预警工程的开展,“地震预警”越来越进入公众的视线,国内外关于“什么是地震预警”的问题越来越多,对地震预警技术的解释也多种多样。本文论述了我国地震预警的进展,地震预警的实质和局限性。地震预警实质是地震观测进入密集观测新阶段,地震速报从分钟级发展到秒级超快地震速报,也就是地震警报。由于在地震预警实际应用中受预警盲区和地震强度估算不准确的局限,地震科学家对地震预警技术应用效能的认识也在不断加深和变化,逐步认识了发挥地震预警的警报作用的重要性。同时,地震预警是复杂的社会工程,引导公众认识地震预警的局限性,才能有效发挥减灾效能。      

用于地震预警的通用数据采集系统构建

地震预警作为一种能够有效减轻地震灾害的手段已经被越来越多的国家和地区研究, 并在实际应用中取得了显著的减灾实效。 但是, 这些地震预警系统中都是以秒为单位组织数据包进行传输的, 使得在使用P波前三秒数据进行τ_c-P_d计算时, 会出现一定的延迟, 尤其是当P波开始位置处于数据包的前半部分时, 延迟会超过0.5 s以上。 另外, 由于现有的地震数据采集系统在同一时刻只能输出一种采样率, 采集到的数据无法在同一时刻用于多种研究目的。 针对这两种情况, 研制了一种适用于地震预警的低延迟数据采集系统, 以100 ms的延迟进行实时数据的传输, 有效提升了预警时间, 最多可增加0.8 s。 同时, 在系统中增加了同步多采样率输出, 使得采集到的数据在同一时刻既可用于全球地震学研究(1 Hz), 又可用于常规地震台站观测(50/100/200 Hz), 提高地震计产出数据的利用率。     

An Introductory Overview of Earthquake Early Warning

Earthquake early warning (EEW) is discriminated from earthquake prediction by using initial seismic waves to predict the severity of ground motion and issue the warning information to potential affected area. The warning information is useful to mitigate the disaster and decrease the losses of life and economy. We reviewed the development history of EEW worldwide and summarized the methodologies using in different systems. Some new sensors came and are coming into EEW giving more developing potential to future implementation. The success of earthquake disaster mitigation relies on the cooperation of the whole society.     

烈度仪用于地震预警的可靠性研究——以高雄MS6.8地震为例

以2016年2月6日我国台湾高雄M_S6.8地震中烈度仪观测网的实际记录为研究对象,通过对烈度仪台站的震相捡拾结果精度、峰值地震动衰减关系适用性、预警震级计算结果准确性等3方面的对比分析,研究了烈度仪用于地震预警时的优势和可靠性,并讨论了可能存在的问题和风险.研究结果表明:对于震中附近具有较高信噪比的烈度仪台站,采用现有震相捡拾方法即可获得较准确的震相到时信息;现有的地震动衰减关系并不完全适用于烈度仪台网,直接应用这些关系式时存在一定风险;基于密集布设的烈度仪观测台网,在较短时间即可获取大量信息,采用已有预警震级估算方法的计算结果有较高的准确性.      

基于卷积神经网络的地震震级快速估算方法

地震发生后震级的快速准确估算是确保地震预警减灾效果的最重要部分,而基于经验参数的传统方法在准确性和时效性方面各自存在局限性。通过建立多全连接层卷积神经网络模型,选用日本KiK-net和K-NET台网1997年至2019年记录到的3 065次地震的16万4 547条初至波在3—9 s不同时段的频域数据、对应地震事件的震源信息（震中距和震源深度）以及场地信息（v_S30）作为全数据集,对提出的模型进行训练并对估算效果予以评估。结果显示:当初至波截取时段为3 s时,模型震级预测的整体准确率为89.92%,并且随着初至波长度的增大,估算震级的准确率持续提高;当截取时段为9 s时,整体准确率达到96.08%。与传统P_d方法的预估结果相比,结果表明:基于本文提出的多全连接层卷积神经网络模型估算的震级精度有所改善,具有绝对误差标准差和均值更小、时效强等特性,实现了基于单台站记录的端到端震级持续快速估算,能更好地增强地震预警的减灾效果。      

Earthquake early warning: Concepts,methods and physical grounds

Modern technology allows real-time seismic monitoring facilities to evolve into earthquake early warning (EEW) systems, capable of reducing deaths, injuries, and economic losses, as well as of speeding up rescue response and damage recovery. The objective of an EEW system is to estimate in a fast and reliable way the earthquake’s damage potential, before the strong shaking hits a given target.     

On the use of JMA intensity in earthquake early warning systems

The estimation of strength of shaking at a site from the initial P-wave portion of ground motion is the key problems for shortening the alert time of the earthquake Early Warning (EEW). The most of the techniques proposed for the purpose utilize (a) ground motion models based on the estimated magnitude and hypocentral distance, or (b) the interim proxies, such as initial vertical displacement P _d . We suggest the instrumental Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) intensity (JMA_I) as a characteristic for fast estimation of damage potential in the EEW systems. We investigated the scaling relations between JMA_I measured using the whole earthquake recordings (overall intensity) and using particular time intervals of various duration (2.0–8.0 s) starting from the P-wave arrival (preliminary intensity). The dataset included 3,660 records (K-NET and the KiK-net networks) from 55 events (M _W 4.1–7.4) occurred in 1999–2008 in Japan. We showed that the time interval of 4–5 s from the P-wave arrival can be used for reliable estimations of the overall intensity with the average standard error of about 0.5 JMA units. The uncertainty in the prediction may be reduced by consideration of local site conditions or by development of the station-specific models.     

基于国产密码的地震预警服务系统防篡改框架设计与应用

地震预警服务系统是地震预警系统的重要组成部分,是网络安全的重点防护目标和对象。由于地震预警信息影响广泛,需要保证其真实性、完整性及服务的高时效性,为此设计一种基于国产密码算法的地震预警服务系统防篡改框架,使用数字证书和协同签名技术,对身份鉴别和消息完整性校验过程进行优化,使得密码算法的时间消耗足够小。设计完成后,上述操作消耗的时间小于0.2 s,兼顾了地震预警信息的安全性和高时效性。