Agronomic impact of tephra fallout from the 1995 and 1996 Ruapehu Volcano eruptions, New Zealand

 Eruptions from Ruapehu Volcano on 11 and 14 October 1995 and 17 June 1996 distributed at least 36×10⁶ m³ of sulphur(S)-rich tephra over the central and eastern North Island of New Zealand. The tephras added between 30–1500 kg ha^–1 S to at least 25 000 km² of land in primary production. Smaller but beneficial amounts of selenium (Se) and in some areas potassium and magnesium were also supplied. Addition of S to the soils in the form of sulphate and elemental S resulted in a drop in soil pH and an increase in pasture S contents within seven weeks of the eruptions. The soils affected by the tephra are naturally low in S and Se, but following the eruptions S was not required in fertilizer applications in many areas. The strongest and longest lasting effects of S and Se deposition were in high anion-retention soils particularly Hapludands (moist, moderately weathered soils, derived from volcanic ash). Soluble fluorine concentrations within the tephras were low compared to historic Icelandic and Chilean examples. However, pastoral livestock deaths were apparently caused by fluorosis in addition to starvation when tephra covered feed. The Ruapehu tephra contained very low concentrations of other soluble toxic elements. Received: 17 January 1997 · Accepted: 31 March 1997     

Using geochemistry as a tool for correlating proximal andesitic tephra: case studies from Mt Rainier (USA) and Mt Ruapehu (New Zealand)

Volcanic hazards assessments at andesite stratovolcanoes rely on the assessment of frequency and magnitude of past events. The identification and correlation of proximal and distal andesitic tephra, which record the explosive eruptive history, are integral to such assessments. These tephra are potentially valuable stratigraphic marker beds useful to the temporal correlation and age dating of Quaternary volcanic, volcaniclastic and epiclastic sedimentary deposits with which they are interbedded. At Mt Ruapehu (New Zealand) and Mt Rainier (USA), much of the detail of the recent volcanic record remains unresolved because of the difficulty in identifying proximal tephra. This study investigates the value of geochemical methods in discriminating andesitic tephra. Our dataset comprises petrological and geochemical analyses of tephra that span the late Quaternary eruptive record of each volcano. Our data illustrate that andesitic tephra are remarkably heterogeneous in composition. Tephra compositions fluctuate widely over short time intervals, and there are no simple or systematic temporal trends in geochemistry within either eruptive record. This complexity in tephra geochemistry limits the application of geochemical approaches to tephrostratigraphic studies, beyond a general characterisation useful to provenance assignation. Petrological and geochemical data suggest that the products of andesite systems are inherently variable and therefore intractable to discrimination by simple geochemical methods alone. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Volcanic Hazard in New Zealand: Scaling and Attenuation Relations for Tephra fall deposits from Taupo Volcano

This paper is a first step in developing a probabilistic hazard model for tephra fall deposits in New Zealand. The database consists of measurements of tephra thickness and eruptive volumefrom 32 past eruptive events at Taupo Volcano. From these are derivedrelations for the mean and maximum tephra thickness as a function ofevent volume and distance from the vent, and for the area enclosed byan isopach as a function of tephra thickness and volume. Thedirectional effects due to wind do not vary appreciably over thevolcanic region of New Zealand. The main feature of wind velocity is aflow to the east that becomes more consistent at higher altitudes. Thelarger the eruption, the more the location of the deposit of maximumthickness (the centre of deposit) tends to be displaced to the east ofvent. A directional attenuation relation about the centre of deposit isderived from the Taupo data. This, in combination with arelation for the position of the centre of deposit relative to thevent, provides a means of estimating the probability of a giventhickness of tephra fall deposit being exceeded at any distance anddirection from the vent in an eruption of given volume.     

当代火山喷发碎屑堆积物的研究进展及其主要类型

火山喷发碎屑堆积物主要分为：火山喷发空中降落堆积物、火山碎屑、流状堆积物、火山泥流堆积物和火山基浪堆积物。简述了这些火山碎屑堆积物的成因及主要特征。     

矿物结构特征对岩浆混合过程的指示： 以新西兰Ruapehu全新世安山岩中的辉石为例

根据矿物结构可以有效的识别开放性体系内的各种岩浆过程,在岩相学研究基础上,对全新世喷发的Ruapehu火山 Whakapapa组安山岩内的辉石斑晶进行了系统的矿物学分析。所研究样品中辉石斑晶以普通辉石及顽火辉石为主,具多样 结构与形态,根据其结构和成分特征可分为3类：（1）骸晶状的辉石（SP型）,具有破碎的、筛孔状外形,核部具有异常高 的FeOT含量,可能为壳源捕掳晶;（2）具均一结构及成分的辉石（HP型）,其内部未显示明显的熔融结构,形成于岩浆房 的内部,基本未受基性岩浆混合的影响;（3）具核-幔-边结构的 “绿核”辉石（GCP型）,其幔部相比核部及边部具有更 高的En、Mg#、CaO、MgO和Cr2O3含量以及更低的FeOT、TiO2含量。且GCP辉石边部相比核部更加富CaO、MgO而贫 FeOT、TiO2。GCP型辉石幔部（边部）与核部形成明显的反环带结构,两者界线清晰,成分上存在突变,是偏基性岩浆注 入岩浆房边界层时,岩浆发生大规模扩散、混合之前形成于脉状岩浆“通道”内;而GCP辉石边部则结晶于混合后的岩浆 之中。辉石的结构及岩相学特征暗示,安山岩在喷发前经历了岩浆混合及地壳物质的混染,混合过程主要发生于地壳浅部 岩浆房的边界层及粥状层内,且这种混合过程可能是诱发火山喷发的重要机制之一。     

中国火山灾害区划研究历史回顾与未来展望

火山灾害区划是防御和减轻火山灾害的一种有效的方法.以中国境内规模最大、喷发危险性最高、潜在火山灾害最强的长白山天池火山为例,回顾我国火山灾害区划研究历史,讨论典型火山喷发活动引起的主要火山灾害类型、成灾机制和灾害效应,总结不同历史阶段各种不同类型火山灾害区划图的优缺点,并结合目前国际上火山灾害区划的研究现状和编图技术,对我国未来编制具有概率含义的火山灾害区划图的思路提出展望.     

Petrology of Calc-alkaline Lavas from Ruapehu Volcano and Related Vents, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand

Most Ruapehu lavas and those of related vents (Taupo VolcanicZone, New Zealand) are calc-alkaline, medium-K basic and acidandesites, though minor volumes of basalt and dacite occur.Nearly all are porphyritic with phenocrysts of plagioclase,augite, olivine (mainly in basalts and basic andesites), orthopyroxene(mainly in acid andesites and dacites), and titanomagnetite(chrome spinel in basic lavas). The lavas have been subdividedinto six groups, each petrographically, geochemically and isotopicallydistinct: Type 1 plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas dominate,and range from basalt to dacite. Least squares mass balancecalculations indicate that these lavas were probably generatedfrom low-alumina basalt by combined crystal fractionation (15–55per cent) and crustal assimilation (1–30 per cent). Xenolithstudies indicate that the assimilant is most likely to be apartial melt of gneiss, originally Torlesse terrane greywacke.Crystal accumulation occurs to a minor extent in Type 1 lavasand becomes important in Type 2 (plagioclase-phyric) and Type3 (pyroxene-phyric) lavas. Type 4 lavas are rare and of unknownorigin, though they may be similar to rare hornblende-bearingandesites from nearby Maungakatote volcano. Type 5 lavas areclinopyroxene-olivine-phyric andesites which were probably generatedfrom a primitive basalt by crystal fractionation without crustalassimilation. Type 6 lavas show strong evidence of disequilibriumand were probably generated by mixing Type 5 basalt with Type1 dacite in proportions of between 60:40 and 50:50. The assertion that the assimilant involved in contaminationof most Ruapehu andesites is a partial melt of basement greywackeis a significant departure from previously published theoriesand has important implications for trace element and isotopicmodelling.     

Holocene vegetation and volcanic activity,Auckland Isthmus,New Zealand

A 12 000 to 4000 yr BP pollen and tephra-bearing profile from Auckland, New Zealand, provides insights into the vegetation history and evidence for early Holocene volcanic activity in this area centred on the Mount Wellington basaltic volcano. Possibly 500 yr separated initial scoriaceous ash deposition (ca. 9500 yr ago) and subsequent major lava flows (ca. 9000 yr ago) from Mount Wellington. The local vegelation, topography, and drainage patterns were substantially modified during this time, and damming by the lava flows resulted in the formation of Lake Waiatarua in a shallow valley head ca. 9000 yr ago. Diatom evidence indicates that this lake was initially deep (> 5 m) but was shallowing around 4000 yr ago. In contrast to the Mount Wellington eruptions, tephra deposition resulting from distant rhyolitic volcanic activity of the central North Island and Mayor Island has had little effect on the Auckland vegetation during this time interval (12 000–4000 yr ago). Between ca. 12 000 and 10 000 yr ago, conifer-angiosperm forest was the predominant vegetation cover on Auckland Isthmus, but during the early Holocene, forest dominated by Metrosideros expanded, probably on to fresh volcanic surfaces resulting from the Mount Wellington eruptions. At this time, swamp forest communities developed in Waiatarua valley basin, and included species indicative of moist, mild, relatively frost-free climates. Some taxa show histories consistent with other records from the northern New Zealand region, including the rise of Ascarina lucida ca. 11 000 to 9000 yr ago, and its subsequent decline, and the expansion of Agathis australis (kauri) forest communities from ca. 6000 yr ago. Taken together the history of local and regional vegetation points to a mild, moist and weakly seasonal early Holocene climate, which subsequently became drier with greater seasonal temperature extremes.     

Potential Tsunami Hazard Associated with the Kerepehi Fault,Firth of Thames,New Zealand

Geophysical data have identified four submarine segments of the Kerepehi Fault, roughly bisecting a back-arc rift (Hauraki Rift). These segments have been traced through the shallow waters of the Firth of Thames, which lies at the southern end of the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand. No historical or paleotsunami data are available to assess the tsunami hazard of these fault segments.Analysis of the fault geometry, combined with paleoseismic data for three further terrestrial segments of the Fault, suggest Most Credible Earthquake (MCE) moment magnitudes of 6.5–7.1. Due to the presence of thick deposits of soft sediment, and thesemi-confined nature of the Firth, the MCE events are considered capable of generating tsunami or tsunami-like waves. Two numerical models (finite element and finite difference), and an empirical method proposed by Abe (1995), were used to predict maximum tsunami wave heights. The numerical models also modelled the tsunami propagation.The MCE events were found not to represent a major threat to the large metropolitan centre of Auckland City (New Zealand's largest population centre). However, the waves were a threat to small coastal communities around the Firth, including the township of Thames, and 35,000 ha of low-lying land along the southern shores of the Firth of Thames.The Abe method was found to provide a quick and useful method of assessing the regional tsunami height. However, for sources in water depths < 25 m the Abe method predicted heights 2–4 times larger than the numerical models. Since the numerical models were not intended for simulating tsunami generation in such shallow water, the Abe results are probably a good guide to the maximum wave heights.     

Submarine hydrothermal activity and gold-rich mineralization at Brothers Volcano, Kermadec Arc, New Zealand

Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW Caldera and Cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy, and ore-forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW Caldera site strikes for ??600?m in a SW?CNE direction with chimneys occurring over a ??145-m depth interval, between ??1,690 and 1,545?m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field and are typically 2?C3?m in height, with some reaching 6?C7?m. Their ages (at time of sampling) fall broadly into three groups: <4, 23, and 35?years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual fault-controlled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. Rarer are massive sulfide crusts 2?C3?m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Cu-rich (up to 28.5?wt.% Cu) and, more commonly, Zn-rich (up to 43.8?wt.% Zn). Geochemical results show that Mo, Bi, Co, Se, Sn, and Au (up to 91?ppm) are correlated with the Cu mineralization, whereas Cd, Hg, Sb, Ag, and As are associated with the dominant Zn-rich mineralization. The Cone site comprises the Upper Cone site atop the summit of the recent (main) dacite cone and the Lower Cone site that straddles the summit of an older, smaller, more degraded dacite cone on the NE flank of the main cone. Huge volumes of diffuse venting are seen at the Lower Cone site, in contrast to venting at both the Upper Cone and NW Caldera sites. Individual vents are marked by low-relief (??0.5?m) mounds comprising predominately native sulfur with bacterial mats. Vent fluids of the NW Caldera field are focused, hot (??300°C), acidic (pH????2.8), metal-rich, and gas-poor. Calculated end-member fluids from NW Caldera vents indicate that phase separation has occurred, with Cl values ranging from 93% to 137% of seawater values. By contrast, vent fluids at the Cone site are diffuse, noticeably cooler (??122°C), more acidic (pH?1.9), metal-poor, and gas-rich. Higher-than-seawater values of SO₄ and Mg in the Cone vent fluids show that these ions are being added to the hydrothermal fluid and are not being depleted via normal water/rock interactions. Iron oxide crusts 3?years in age cover the main cone summit and appear to have formed from Fe-rich brines. Evidence for magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal system at Brothers includes: high concentrations of dissolved CO₂ (e.g., 206?mM/kg at the Cone site); high CO₂/³He; negative ??D and ??¹⁸O_H2O for vent fluids; negative ??³⁴S for sulfides (to ?4.6??), sulfur (to ?10.2??), and ??¹⁵N₂ (to ?3.5??); vent fluid pH values to 1.9; and mineral assemblages common to high-sulfidation systems. Changing physicochemical conditions at the Brothers hydrothermal system, and especially the Cone site, occur over periods of months to hundreds of years, as shown by interlayered Cu?+?Au- and Zn-rich zones in chimneys, variable fluid and isotopic compositions, similar shifts in ³He/⁴He values for both Cone and NW Caldera sites, and overprinting of ??magmatic?? mineral assemblages by water/rock-dominated assemblages. Metals, especially Cu and possibly Au, may be entering the hydrothermal system via the dissolution of metal-rich glasses. They are then transported rapidly up into the system via magmatic volatiles utilizing vertical (??2.5?km long), narrow (??300-m diameter) ??pipes,?? consistent with evidence of vent fluids forming at relatively shallow depths. The NW Caldera and Cone sites are considered to represent stages along a continuum between water/rock- and magmatic/hydrothermal-dominated end-members.     

Mixed Magmas, Mush Chambers and Eruption Triggers: Evidence from Zoned Clinopyroxene Phenocrysts in Andesitic Scoria from the 1995 Eruptions of Ruapehu Volcano, New Zealand

Juvenile ejecta from the September and October 1995 eruptionsof Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand, indicate that mixing occurredbetween relatively higher- and lower-temperature (high-T andlow-T) andesitic magmas. Compositional zonations in clinopyroxenephenocrysts provide direct evidence for a pre-eruption crystal–meltmush chamber containing low-T magma, and elucidate the processesof magma mixing and eruption, following the injection of high-Tmagma. Many phenocrysts with Fe-rich cores derived from low-Tmagma have extremely reverse zoned mantles around slightly resorbedcores. Mg-value [100Mg/(Mg + Fe)] increases from 65–70to     

Quaternary tephra marker beds and their potential for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction on Chatham Island,east of New Zealand,southwest Pacific Ocean

Tephras provide one of the most reliable methods of time control and synchronisation within Quaternary sequences. We report on the identification of two widespread rhyolitic tephras – the Kawakawa and Rangitawa tephras – preserved in extensive peat deposits on Chatham Island ～900 km east of New Zealand. The tephras, both products of supereruptions from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, occur as pale, fine‐ash dominated layers typically 10–150 mm thick. Mineralogically they are dominated by rhyolitic glass, together with subordinate amounts of quartz, feldspar, hypersthene, hornblende, Fe–Ti oxides and zircon. Phlogopite/biotite was identified additionally in Rangitawa Tephra. Ages for each tephra were obtained via mineralogical and major element glass composition‐based correlation with well‐dated equivalent deposits on mainland New Zealand, and we also obtained a new zircon fission‐track age for Rangitawa Tephra (350 ± 50 ka) on Chatham Island. Both tephras were erupted at critical times for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions in the New Zealand region: the Kawakawa at ca. 27 cal. ka, near the beginning of the ‘extended’ LGM early in marine isotope stage (MIS) 2; and the Rangitawa at ca. 350 ka near the end of MIS 10. The time constraints provided by the tephras demonstrate that Chatham Island peats contain long‐distance pollen derived from mainland New Zealand, which provides a reliable proxy for identifying glacial–interglacial climate conditions, in this case during the MIS 11–10 and MIS 2–1 cycles. The two tephras thus provide important chronostratigraphic tie‐points that facilitate correlation and synchronisation not only across the Quaternary deposits of the Chatham Islands group but also with climatically significant terrestrial and marine records in the wider New Zealand region. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Integrated Landslide Susceptibility Analysis and Hazard Assessment in the Principality of Andorra

In the paper we present the procedure for hazard assessment that has been used to prepare the landslide hazard map of the Principality of Andorra at 1:5,000 scale. The main phases of the hazard assessment are discussed. Susceptibility analysis has involved the location of the potential slope failures, and the estimation of both landslide volume and runout distance. In the susceptible areas, landslide magnitude and frequency has been determined in order to produce the Hazard Zoning Map. Data required for hazard assessment have been introduced into a GIS or derived directly from available Digital Terrain Models. Data handling and treatment with the GIS has allowed the performance of the landslide hazard assessment and mapping in a fast and reproducible way.     

吉林省新生代龙岗火山群期次划分及火山喷发类型特点

吉林省龙岗地区龙岗火山群,新生代火山活动可划分为5个火山喷发期次,由老至新为：船底山期、小椅子山期、大椅子山期、金龙顶子期、四海期。根据对各期火山岩相的研究,确定了它们的火山喷发类型。     

水下喷发火山碎屑岩储层特征及主控因素:以新西兰Taranaki盆地中新世Kora火山为例

新西兰Taranaki盆地中新世Kora火山是海底喷发形成的碎屑岩型火山,可代表浅埋藏火山岩的储层特征.本文根据5口钻井的孔隙度、渗透率、孔隙孔径和铸体薄片开展Kora火山的储层特征、储集空间组成、缝宽以及原生和次生孔隙之间关系的分析.研究结果如下:(1)储集空间主要为次生孔隙,然后是裂缝和原生孔隙;Kora火山具有高...     

Dissolution and depletion of ferromagnesian minerals from Holocene tephra layers in an acid bog,New Zealand,and implications for tephra correlation

This study examines the depletion of ferromagnesian silicate minerals from a sequence of thin, distal, mainly rhyolitic tephra layers of Holocene age preserved in an acid peat bog (Kopouatai), North Island, New Zealand. The rate of such depletion has been fast, as indicated by the complete loss of biotite from one tephra layer (Kaharoa Tephra), in which it is normally dominant, in only ca. 770 yr. Chemical dissolution is advocated as the likely cause for the depletion, with amphiboles and other mineral grains commonly showing etch pits, microcaves, and other characteristic surface solution features. Theoretical thermodynamic and kinetic models show a marked increase in the rate of dissolution of all ferromagnesian minerals under conditions of low pH (< 4), but that where silica concentrations in solution are high the relative proportions of minerals remaining are unaffected. However, where concentrations of dissolved silica are low, as in most bog environments, the relative proportions of ferromagnesian minerals are affected as well as absolute amounts being decreased. Amphiboles are depleted relative to pyroxenes, consistent with kinetic studies. The results show that the identification and correlation of tephras on the basis of relative abundances of ferromagnesian minerals alone may be unreliable, and emphasise the need to use multiple criteria in such studies.     

Geotechnical characterisation of stratocone crater wall sequences, White Island Volcano, New Zealand

Geotechnical characterisation is undertaken for 3 broad units comprising the bulk of the stratigraphy identified on White Island Volcano, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, an active island stratovolcano. Field and laboratory measurements were used to describe rock mass characteristics for jointed lava flow units, and ring shear tests were undertaken to derive residual strength parameters for joint infilling materials within the lavas. Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Geological Strength Index (GSI) values were calculated and converted to Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters using the Hoek-Brown criterion. Backanalysis of known landslide scarps was used to derive strength parameters for brecciated rock masses and hydrothermally altered rock masses. Andesite lava flows have high intact strength (σ_ci = 184 ± 50 MN m^− 2; γ = 24.7 ± 0.3 kN m^− 3) and typically 3 wide, infilled joint sets, one parallel to flow direction and two steeply inclined, with spacings of 0.3-1.7 m. Joints are rough, with estimated friction angles for clean joints of ?_j = 42-47°. Joint infill materials are clayey silts derived from weathering of wall rocks and primary volcanic sources; they have low plastic (54%) and liquid (84%) limits and residual strength values of c_r = 0 kN m^− 2 and ?_r = 23.9 ± 3.1°. RMR values range from 70 to 73, giving calculated strength parameters of c′ = 1161-3391 kN m^− 2 and ?′ = 50.5-62.3°. Backanalysis suggests brecciated rock masses have c′ = 0 kN m^− 2 and ?′ = 35.4°, whereas GSI observations in the field suggest higher cohesion (c′ = 306-719 kN m^− 2) and a range of friction angles bracketing the backanalysed result (?′ = 30.6-41.7°). Hydrothermally altered rock masses have c′ = 369 kN m^− 2 and ?′ = 14.9°, indicating considerable loss of strength, especially frictional resistance, compared with the fresh lava units. Values measured at outcrop scale in this study are in keeping with other published values for similar volcanic edifices; backanalysed data suggest weaker rock mass properties than those determined at outcrop. This is interpreted as a scale issue, whereby rock mass characteristics of a large rock mass (crater wall scale) are weaker than those of small outcrops, due in part to the overestimation of friction angle from measurements on small exposures.     

Tsunami Hazard for the Auckland Region and Hauraki Gulf,New Zealand

The Hauraki Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea next to the largest population centre in New Zealand, the Auckland metropolitan region. The potential tsunami hazard is of concern to regional and local planners around the Hauraki Gulf. The Hauraki Gulf has recorded 11 tsunamis and one meteorological tsunami (rissaga) since 1840.The historical tsunami data are relatively sparse, particularly for the largest events in 1868 and 1883. Moreover, local sources may produce damaging tsunamis but none has occurred during recorded history. Therefore numerical modelling of potential tsunami events provides a powerful tool to obtain data for planning purposes. Three main scenarios have been identified for numerical modelling:1. A teletsunami event from an earthquake off the West Coast of South America. Historically this region has produced the largest teletsunamis in the Hauraki Gulf.2. A tsunami generated by a local earthquake along the Kerepehi Fault. This fault bisects the Gulf, has been active during the last century at the southern inland end, and is overlain by a considerable thickness of soft sediment that may amplify the seismic waves.3. A tsunami generated by a volcanic eruption within the Auckland Volcanic Field. This field has involved a series of mainly monogenetic basaltic eruptions over the last 140,000 years. Many of these eruptions have involved phreatomagmatic eruptions around the coastal margins, or within the shallow waters close to Auckland.