Space petrology and the planetary evolution of the solar system

This paper shows that ferrous silicate meteorites (chondrites), which are conventionally regarded as direct condensates of the primordial solar nebula, are actually igneous and evolved in two stages that were contrasting in their physical and chemical parameters. The origin and early evolution of chondrites went on under enormous fluid pressure, which produced diamond embryos oversaturated with fluid inclusions, and gave rise to isotope abnormality and chondrite structure due to tear-shaped segregation of silicate melt in a Fe-rich diamond-bearing matrix melt. Chondrite crystallization mostly occurred during the second stage, which occurred under low pressure and was characterized by normal fractionation of isotopes and formation of structure opposite to chondrite (containing metal droplets in a silicate matrix), and which involved the formation of volcanic glass.     

新疆伊犁吐拉苏地区的线性构造及控矿特征

采用多种数值图像进行线性构造解译，其中DEM和NOAA主要用于区域尺度，TM用于勘探区尺度，地面磁法数据用于靶区范围的解译分析。研究认为该区线性构造与金矿床的空间分布关系密切，表现为：（1）区域尺度的一级控矿构造为NEE、NE和NW向构造的交汇部位；吐拉苏地区的一级控矿构造为WNW和NNW及NE方向构造的交汇部位；（2）吐拉苏地区的次级控矿构造为NNE和环形构造的交汇部位；（3）靶区的一级控矿构造为NE、SN和环形构造。线性构造异常分析结果显示，当线性构造的优益度大于40时，有较大的成矿可能性。     

On the origin of sheet jointing

SummaryOn the Origin of Sheet Jointing Although the deep-seated fractures which run approximately parallel to the land surface and are known as sheeting joints are widely attributed to erosional offloading alone, there is much evidence and argument which casts doubt on this hypothesis. There is no sound mechanical reason why fractures should normally develop as a result of decompression. Sheet jointing is well developed in strata which have never been deeply buried. The domed inselbergs on which sheet jointing is commonly displayed appear to survive by virtue of their joints being compressed, which is inconsistent with the sheet jointing developing through radial expansion or tensional stress. A few inselbergs are underlain by rocks affected by sheeting joints which are not parallel to the hill profile but on the contrary dip into the slopes of the residuals. These and other types of evidence and lines of argument point to sheeting joints having developed under compressive stress.The joints determine the shape of the land surface and not vice versa.

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ZusammenfassungÜber den Ursprung von Plattenklüften Obwohl die tiefliegenden, ungefähr zur Geländeoberfläche parallel verlaufenden, als Plattenklüfte bezeichneten Brüche verschiedentlich der Sonneneinstrahlung u. ä., weitgehend aber der Entlastung durch Erosion allein zugeschrieben werden, liegt eine Reihe von Argumenten vor, die Zweifel an dieser Hypothese aufkommen lassen. Es gibt für die Annahme einer Druckentlastung als Ursache für diese Entscheidung keinen mechanisch verständlichen Grund. Plattenklüfte sind deutlich in Gesteinen ausgebildet, die nie eine größere Überlagerung hatten. Domartige Inselberge oder Bornhardts, bei denen Plattenklüftung weit verbreitet und gut entwickelt ist, scheinen ihre Formresistenz dadurch zu sichern, daß ihre Klüftung unter Kompression stand. Dies widerspricht einer Erklärung als Effekt einer radialen Ausdehnung oder einer Dehnungsspannung. Einige Inselberge sind von Gesteinen unterlagert, die eine Plattenklüftung aufweisen, welche nicht parallel zum Bergprofil verläuft, sondern gegen die Hänge des Inselberges einfällt.Vieles deutet darauf hin, daß die Plattenklüftung nicht als Folge einer Druckentlastung, sondern als Folge einer Druckbelastung zu deuten ist.Plattenklüfte und druckbedingte Verwerfungen treten häufig zusammen auf. Messungen geben Zeugnis von hoher Druckbelastung in Bergwerken und Steinbrüchen. Druckbelastung scheint ein physikalischer Parameter für die Ausbildung von Plattenklüftung zu sein. Auch viele morphologische Merkmale, die mit Plattenklüftung verbunden sind, weisen auf Kompression hin. Eine solche macht insbesondere die Formresistenz der Inselberge verständlich.

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RésuméSur l'origine des joints en nappe L'origine des fractures profondes, dites joints en nappe, qui sont à peu près parallèles à la surface de la terre, a été attribuée à plusieurs causes, dont l'insolation, l'altération chimique, l'injection plutonique, l'expansion métasomatique et le soulèvement vertical. Ces idées peuvent fournir des explications partielles, ou bien elles peuvent éclaircir des cas particuliers, mais en tant qu'explications générales elles ne sont pas acceptables.La présence des joints en nappe est attribuée le plus souvent à l'allègement par l'érosion uniquement, au point que certains géologues les désignent sous le nom de joints d'allègement. Toutefois de nombreux témoignages et discussions mettent cette hypothèse en doute. Aucune raison mécanique valable ne mène normalement au développement des fractures par suite de la décompression. Les joints en nappe se montrent aussi bien dans des couches qui n'ont jamais été profondément enfouies. Les inselbergs à dôme ou bornhardts, sur lesquels les joints en nappe se manifestent amplement, paraissent subsister en raison de la compression de leurs joints; il s'ensuit que le développement de ces joints en nappe ne peut pas être attribuable à l'expansion radiale ou au travail à la tension. Quelques-uns des inselbergs ont pour base des roches qui ont été soumises à l'influence des joints en nappe qui ne sont pas parallèles au profil de la colline mais qui, au contraire, s'inclinent jusque dans les pentes des résiduels.D'autre part, divers témoignages et discussions font croire que les joints en nappe ont pu évoluer par la suite du travail à la compression. Certaines failles sont causées par la compression, et d'ordinaire les failles et les joints en nappe se produisent dans des conditions uniformes; il existe des observations de mesures de compression très considérable dans beaucoup de mines et carrières; le travail à la compression paraît matériellement capable de produire ces joints; de nombreuses caractéristiques morphologiques associées aux joints en nappe se rapportent à la compression. Ce qui s'explique surtout, c'est la conservation des inselbergs à dôme.Cette hypothèse propose donc que les joints en nappe déterminent les configurations de la surface terrestre, et non vice versa.

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With 13 Figures     

A study of the relation between jointing and structural evolution

This paper records the results of a regional jointing survey in the country adjacent to a part of the Neath disturbance, South Wales, in an area of Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Strata. A well developed joint system exists which is comprised of up to six sets of joints striking at 350°, 330°, 290°, 270°, 240° and 210°. The joint patterns undergo stratigraphical and areal variation, which can be correlated with lithology and tectonic setting. A comparison of the joint trends with the faults and folds shows that a genetic relationship exists between the structures. It is suggested that the joint sets formed early in the tectonic evolution of the area, and that these and the faults can be attributed to a general N-S compressive force, and its related first and second order shear regimes.     

Importance of the Lu-Hf isotopic system in studies of planetary chronology and chemical evolution

The ¹⁷⁶Lu-¹⁷⁶Hf isotope method and its applications in earth sciences are discussed. Greater fractionation of Lu/Hf than Sm/Nd in planetary magmatic processes makes ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}$ a powerful geochemical tracer. In general, proportional variations of ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}$ exceed those of ${}^{143}\text{Nd}{}^{\mathrm{l44}}\text{Nd}$ by factors of 1.5–3 in terrestrial and lunar materials. Lu-Hf studies therefore have a major contribution to make in understanding of terrestrial and other planetary evolution through time, and this is the principal importance of Lu-Hf. New data on basalts from oceanic islands show unequivocally that whereas considerable divergences occur in ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}\text{-}{}^{87}\text{Sr}{}^{86}\text{Sr}$ and ${}^{143}\text{Nd}{}^{\mathrm{l44}}\text{Nd}\text{-}{}^{87}\text{Sr}{}^{86}\text{Sr}$ diagrams, ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}$ and ${}^{143}\text{Nd}{}^{144}\text{Nd}$ display a single, linear isotopic variation in the suboceanic mantle. These discordant ${}^{87}\text{Sr}{}^{86}\text{Sr}$ relationships may allow, with the acquisition of further Hf-Nd-Sr isotopic data, a distinction between processes such as mantle metasomatism, influence of seawater-altered material in the magma source, or recycling of sediments into the mantle. In order to evaluate the Hf-Nd isotopic correlation in terms of mantle fractionation history, there is a need for measurements of Hf distribution coefficients between silicate minerals and liquids, and specifically for a knowledge of Hf behavior in relation to rareearth elements. For studying ancient terrestrial Hf isotopic variations, the best quality Hf isotope data are obtained from granitoid rocks or zircons. New data show that very U-Pb discordant zircons may have upwardly-biased ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}$, but that at least concordant to slightly discordant zircons appear to be reliable carriers of initial ${}^{176}\text{Hf}{}^{177}\text{Hf}$. Until the controls on addition of radiogenic Hf to zircon are understood, combined zircon-whole rock studies are recommended. Lu-Hf has been demonstrated as a viable tool for dating of ancient terrestrial and extraterrestrial samples, but because it offers little advantage over existing methods, is unlikely to find wide application in pure chronological studies.     

Financialization,totality and planetary urbanization in the Chilean Andes

In a context of planetary urbanization, where vast swathes of the countryside are being enclosed on an ongoing basis in order to support a sprawling urban system, the relationship between finance and land-use change needs to be brought to the forefront. By engaging with Henri Lefebvre’s ideas of levels and totality, this paper draws analytical connections between the financialization of the transnational mining industry and the production of the financialized urban everyday in geographies of extraction. The paper does this by looking at the case of Pascua Lama, a multibillion open-cast mine to be developed in Chile by a major mining company in the context of the current global gold rush. Through this case, I show how a set of strategies pursued by financiers and corporate managers thousands of kilometers away from the extraction site, resulted in fractured spaces of urbanization shaped by socioecological plunder, dispossession and geographically uneven financial landscapes.     

Cr diffusion in orthopyroxene: Experimental determination, Mn-Cr thermochronology, and planetary applications

We have determined Cr diffusion coefficients (D) in orthopyroxene parallel to the a-, b-, and c-axial directions as a function temperature at f(O₂) corresponding to those of the wüstite-iron (WI) buffer. Diffusion is found to be significantly anisotropic with D(//c) > D(//b) > D(//a), conforming to an earlier theoretical prediction. Increase of f(O₂) from WI buffer conditions to 4.5 log unit above the buffer at 950 and 1050 °C leads to decrease of D(Cr) by a factor of two to three, possibly suggesting significant contribution from an interstitial diffusion mechanism. We have used the diffusion data to calculate the closure temperatures (T_c) of the Mn-Cr decay system in orthopyroxene as a function of initial temperature (T₀), grain size (a) and cooling rate for spherical and plane sheet geometries. We also present graphical relations that permit retrieval of cooling rates from knowledge of the resetting of Mn-Cr ages in orthopyroxene during cooling, T₀ and a. Application of these relations to the Mn-Cr age data of the cumulate eucrite Serra de Magé yields a T_c of 830-980 °C, and cooling rates of 2-27 °C/Myr at T_c and ∼1-13 °C/Myr at 500 °C. It is shown that the cooling of Serra de Magé to the closure temperature of the Mn-Cr system took place at its original site in the parent body, and thus implies a thickness for the eucrite crust in the commonly accepted HED parent body, Vesta, of greater than 30 km. This thickness of the eucrite crust is compatible only with a model of relatively olivine-poor bulk mineralogy in which olivine constitutes 19.7% of the total asteroidal mass.     

Interpretation of chaotic jointing near fault planes: a new approach

We suggest a new approach to study apparently chaotic jointing near faults of different geometries. It implies matching jointing stereograms to standard patterns developed for strike-slip, reverse, thrust, and normal faulting. The standard patterns correspond to joint triplets that regularly initiate in small rock volumes under second-order stress fields during the formation of fault zones. The approach was tested for the cases of failure in bedrock and unconsolidated sediments and showed up as an efficient tool for investigating the origin, structure, and evolution of faults.     

Lineaments in the central part of the Moscow Syneclise and their relations to faults in the basement

It is well known that very few young faults have been recorded within the vast territories of ancient platforms that are overlain by a virtually undeformed sedimentary cover of Phanerozoic sediments. At the same time, interpretation of topographic maps of various scales, aerial photographs, and satellite images reveals predominantly linear and occasionally arcuate zones (lineaments), some of which coincide with large fracture zones related to the Riphean rifts and grabens in the platform basement. Elevated emanations of hydrogen, radon, helium, and other gases were detected over some of the lineaments, thus indicating anomalous permeability of these zones in comparison with the adjacent areas. An opinion was stated that the elevated permeability of these fault zones is provided by block vibrations as a response to lunisolar tide effects. The lineaments are of a great environmental significance because they are conduits of groundwater migration. The origin of lineaments in the platform sedimentary cover and their relations to structural elements in the basement, to evolution, and to causes of activity have provoked great interest.     

Biaxial calcite: Occurrence,optics, and associated minor strain phenomena

Biaxiality in calcite (2 V10°, less commonly 15°) is widespread in metamorphic rocks of all grades and in carbonatites. It is a minor effect of late strain, in many cases not directly related to visible {01¯12} twinning, and partially independent of lattice bending. For values of 2V up to about 15° the optic axial plane coincides, within limits of error of measurement, with {10¯10}. For those rare crystals with 2V in the range 25–50°, there is a real departure—never greater than 10°—from this orientation; and biaxiality is certainly in some, probably in all such cases, confined to domains of overlap of single thin twin lamellae.Microscopic procedure is described for determining the orientation of the optical indicatrix relative to crystallographic coordinates.     

Artificial Lineaments in Digital Terrain Modelling: Can Operators of Topographic Variables Cause Them?

Digital terrain modeling is widely used in geological studies. In some cases, orthogonal and diagonal linear patterns appear on maps of local topographic variables. These patterns may be both portrayals of geological structures and artefacts. Some researchers speculated that possible anisotropy of operators of local topographic variables might be a cause of these artefacts. Using a principle for testing derivative operators in image processing, we gave proof to isotropy (rotation invariability) of operators of a majority of local topographic attributes of the complete system of curvatures (i.e., slope gradient, horizontal curvature, vertical curvature, mean curvature, Gaussian curvature, accumulation curvature, ring curvature, unsphericity curvature, difference curvature, minimum curvature, maximum curvature, horizontal excess curvature, and vertical excess curvature). Rotating an elevation function about z-axis and then applying these operators cannot lead to variations in both values of the topographic variables and patterns in their maps, comparing with results of applying these operators to an unrotated elevation function. This demonstrates that linear artefacts with preferable directions in maps of the topographic attributes specified cannot be caused by intrinsic properties of their operators. Other possible sources for false linear patterns in maps of topographic variables are briefly discussed: (a) errors in the compilation of digital elevation models (DEMs), (b) grid geometry of digital terrain models (DTMs), (c) errors in DEM interpolation, (d) imperfection of algorithms for DTM derivation, and (e) aliasing errors.     

Activity of an M4.5 hyades dwarf with a planetary system

An analysis of the activity of the Hyades M4.5 dwarf EPIC 210490365, K2–25 (2MASS J04130560+1514520), based on observational data obtained with the Kepler Space Telescope is presented. This dwarf has a Neptune-type planet. The continuous evolution of active regions on the surface of K2–25 is traced over 70 days. The brightness changes of the star display a fairly stable nature. The rotation period of K2–25 is 1.878 ± 0.030 day. Maps of temperature inhomogeneities on the surface of K2–25 are constructed for 37 sets of observations. All these maps show concentrations of spots at two longitudes, with more active region having the larger area. The total spotted surface area S is, on average, 2.6% of the total visible surface of the star. The estimated differential rotation speed of the star is ΔΩ = 0.0071 ± 0.002 rad/day. The positions of K2–25 in S–age, S–rotation period, and S–Rossby number diagrams are consistent with the general trends of these dependences established earlier for M dwarfs. The derived Rossby number for K2–25, Ro = 0.36, is used to estimate the star’s X-ray luminosity to be log(R _X) = ?4.20.     

Using Remote Sensing Data to Delineate the Lineaments for Hydrothermal Mineral Prediction in Heqing Area, Northwest Yunnan Province, China

Lineament extraction and analysis is one of the routine work in mapping medium and large areas using remote sensing data, most of which are satellite images. Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper （ETM） of 945×1 232 pixels subscene acquired on 21 March 2000 covering the northwestern part of Yunnan Province has been digitally processed using ER Mapper software. This article aims to produce lineament density map that predicts favorable zones for hydrothermal mineral occurrences and quantify spatial associations between the known hydrothermal mineral deposits. In the process of lineament extraction a number of image processing techniques were applied. The extracted lineaments were imported into MapGIS software and a suitable grid of 100 m×100 m was chosen. The Kriging method was used to create the lineament density map of the area. The results show that remote sensing data could be useful to extract the lineaments in the area. These lineaments are closely correlated with the faults obtained through other geological investigation methods. On comparing with field data the lineament-density map identifies two important high prospective zones, where large-scale deposits are already existing. In addition the map highlights unrecognized target areas that require follow up investigation.     

Deep seismic studies of the territory jointing the western Siberian and Siberian Platforms

As a result of regional seismic research by the method of isolated seismic sounding with waves of different types, the peculiarities of the wave field and main features of abyssal structures of the earth's crust are ascertained throughout the line: western Siberia lowland, the Yenisey mountain range, and the western part of the Siberian Platform. – Authors.     

Stratigraphic classification and terminology: An actualistic appraisal and proposal

Stratigraphy investigates rocks as strata emphasizing on their temporal sequence and spatial variations. Stratigraphic analysis starts from classification of local rock succession as provisional stratigraphic units, formations. Through correlation by mapping and by all the methods available, lithogenetic bodies, the lithosomes, are restored and formal stratigraphic units in hierachical ranks for universal appliance and representing geological times are established and are being continuously amended. Such procedual schemes have been practised without any inconvenience ever since the pioneer days of J. G.Lehmann. It was not until 1941 when the Hedbergian stratigraphers interpreted the lithogenetic body, the lithosome, as formation that started the impractical pros and cons of arguments concerning stratigraphic classification for the last thirty years. In this paper, the writer points out on the one hand the lack of perspective in the Hedbergian multifold-system-stratigraphic-classification concept and on the other the central theme of the stratigraphic research, present and past, being mainly in the refinement of the fossil zones and the radiometric dates. In order to avoid the avoidable confusions raised by the Hedbergian stratigraphers, the writer suggests them to return to the old track concentrating the entire effort in stabilization of stratigraphic usage by calibration and intercalibration with different methods of the stratigraphic units in universal appliance.

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Zusammenfassung Die Stratigraphie untersucht Gesteine in ihrer Erscheinungsform als Schichten und betont deren zeitliche Folge und räumliche Variation. Die stratigraphische Analyse beginnt mit der Klassifizierung örtlicher Gesteinsabfolgen als vorläufige stratigraphische Einheiten. Parallelisierung durch Kartierung und alle anderen verfügbaren Methoden führen zur Rekonstruktion der Lithosome, der lithogenetischen Körper, aus denen dann in hierarchischer Reihenfolge stratigraphische Einheiten gebildet werden, die universell angewendet werden, geologische Zeiträume repräsentieren und ständig verbessert werden. Dieses Verfahren ist seit den Pioniertagen J. G.Lehmanns ohne Unzuträglichkeiten angewandt worden. Als 1941 die vonHedberg beeinflußten Stratigraphen damit begannen, den lithogenetischen Körper, das Lithosome, als formation zu interpretieren, begannen die schwierigen Pro- und Kontra-Argumente in der stratigraphischen Klassifikation der letzten dreißig Jahre. In dieser Arbeit führt der Autor den Mangel an Perspektive desHedbergschen stratigraphischen VielfachsystemKlassifikationskonzeptes auf der einen Seite aus und auf der anderen das zentrale Thema stratigraphischer Forschung, das heute wie damals im wesentlichen in der schärferen Fassung der durch Fossilien definierten Zonen und radiometrischer Daten besteht. Um der vermeidbaren Verwirrung zu entgehen, die durch die vonHedberg beeinflußten Stratigraphen entstanden ist, schlägt der Autor dieser Arbeit vor, zur alten Spur zurückzukehren und alle Anstrengungen darauf zu richten, den Gebrauch stratigraphischer Begriffe durch saubere Definition und Unterteilung der universell angewandten stratigraphischen Einheiten unter Verwendung aller verfügbaren Methoden zu stabilisieren.

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Résumé La stratigraphie étudie les roches en tant que strates, en mettant en relief leur succession dans le temps et leurs variations spatiales. L'analyse stratigraphique se fait à partir de la classification des successions de roches locales, comme unités et formations stratigraphiques provisoires. Par corrélation, en dressant des cartes ou utilisant toutes autres méthodes, on reconstruit les corps lithogéniques, les lithosomes, et l'on établit, avec corrections au besoin, les unités stratigraphiques formelles par rangs hiérarchiques quant à leurs valeurs d'application (ou instruments) universelle et de représentations des temps géologiques. De tels procédés ont toujours été en pratique sans inconvénient depuis l'époque de défrichement de J. G.Lehmann. Ce n'est qu'en 1941, quand les stratigraphes, influencés par les idées d'Hedberg, expliquèrent les corps lithogéniques, les lithosomes, comme «formation », que commença la difficile discussion, pour et contre, de la classification stratigraphique des trente dernières années. Dans cette étude, l'auteur signale, d'un côte le manque de perspective que comporte le concept de la classification stratigraphique du système multiforme deHedberg, et de l'autre, le thème central de la recherche stratigraphique qui consiste essentiellement, présentement comme dans le passé, dans une précision plus raffinée du contenu des zones fossilifères et des données radiométriques. Afin d'éviter la confusion évitable suscitée par les stratigraphes Hedbergiens, l'auteur leur suggère de revenir sur le vieux sentier en concentrant tous leurs efforts pour stabiliser l'emploi de notions stratigraphiques par l'étalonnage et l'interrétalonnage (calibrage), au moyen de diverses méthodes, des unités stratigraphiques d'application universelle (ou comme instruments universels).

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Quaternary stratigraphy of Norden, a proposal for terminology and classification

Principles and terminology for classification of the Quaternary are discussed, including lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy. morphostratigraphy, climatostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy. The main conclusion is a proposal for a common chronostratigraphical classification of the Quaternary in Norden (and partly continental NW Europe). The Quaternary is subdivided into the Pleistocene and the Holocene Series. The Pleistocene is further subdivided into several provisional stages (Weichselian, Eemian, etc.), based on the sequence of glacials/interglacials. but with the boundaries preferably defined by stratotypes. The Late Weichselian and the Flandrian (Holocene) are subdivided into chronozoncs (Bolling, Older Dryas, Allerød, Younger Dryas, Preboreal, Boreal, Atlantic, Subboreal, Subatlantic) with the boundaries dcfined in conventional radiocarbon years.     

No water, no plate tectonics: convective heat transfer and the planetary surfaces of Venus and Earth

We consider the influence of water on the near-surface rheology of Venusian and terrestrial rocks and hence the way their heat transfer processes have been able to shape their planetary surfaces. We suggest that Earth is now unique in having plate-like surface movements at velocities characteristic of ‘deep’ material in self-regulating convective states (～ few cm/year) only because liquid water is there available to facilitate mechanical failure of its lithosphere (sic). The relative absence of free water on Venus is thought to more than compensate for the effect of higher temperatures on the deformability of its surface rocks and is interpreted as the reason for an absence of Earth-like platetectonics and the distinctive distributions of volcanism and seismicity accompanying such a process for > 109 years. The characteristics of Venusian volcanism in its post plate-tectonic era are now expected to be similar to Earth's intraplate (‘hotspot’) volcanism.