Stress triggering of normal aftershocks due to strike slip earthquakes in compressive regime

A few cases of occurrence of normal aftershocks after strike slip earthquakes in compressive regime have been reported in the literature. Occurrence of such aftershocks is intriguing as they occurred despite the apparent stabilizing influence of compressive plate tectonic stresses on the normal faults. To investigate the occurrence processes of such earthquakes, we calculate change in static stress on optimally oriented normal and reverse faults in the dilational and compressional step over zones, respectively, due to slip on a vertical strike slip fault under compressive regime. We find that change in static stress is much more pronounced on normal faults as compared to that on reverse faults, for all values of fault friction. Change in static stress on reverse fault is marginally positive only when the fault friction is low, whereas for normal faults it is positive for all values of fault friction, and is maximum for high fault friction. We suggest that strike slip faulting in compressive regime creates a localized tensile environment in the dilational step over zone, which causes normal faulting in that region. The aftershocks on such normal faults are considered to have occurred as an almost instantaneous response of stress transfer due to strike slip motion.     

潮汐应力对滑坡的触发机制及与时间相关性探讨

已有的滑坡统计数据和研究成果显示,滑坡发生的时间具有明显的周期分布规律特征,除了与降雨季节相关的因素外,受日月引力潮的影响也较明显。从固体潮理论出发,推导简化弹性地球模型地表的潮汐应力表达式,阐述固体潮汐作为滑坡日周期因子对滑坡的影响。在安全系数表达式中考虑潮汐应力的作用,并从表达式中阐述潮汐应力触滑的机制,剖析潮汐应力触发滑坡机制。以1985年的湖北省秭归县新滩特大型滑坡作为算例,采用折线滑动为破坏模式,论述潮汐应力与时间的相关性,以及边坡稳定性安全系数与时间的相关关系。计算结果表明,潮汐应力与边坡安全系数随时间均呈明显日周期及半日周期变动,该边坡稳定性系数的极差与不考虑潮汐应力下的稳定性系数的比值达到3.4%;滑坡发生的时间与潮汐应力处于峰值的时间较为吻合,说明潮汐应力很可能是除降雨等主因之外的触发临界状态滑坡发生的另一因素。     

Static stress changes associated with normal faulting earthquakes in South Balkan area

Activation of major faults in Bulgaria and northern Greece presents significant seismic hazard because of their proximity to populated centers. The long recurrence intervals, of the order of several hundred years as suggested by previous investigations, imply that the twentieth century activation along the southern boundary of the sub-Balkan graben system, is probably associated with stress transfer among neighbouring faults or fault segments. Fault interaction is investigated through elastic stress transfer among strong main shocks (M ≥ 6.0), and in three cases their foreshocks, which ruptured distinct or adjacent normal fault segments. We compute stress perturbations caused by earthquake dislocations in a homogeneous half-space. The stress change calculations were performed for faults of strike, dip, and rake appropriate to the strong events. We explore the interaction between normal faults in the study area by resolving changes of Coulomb failure function (ΔCFF) since 1904 and hence the evolution of the stress field in the area during the last 100 years. Coulomb stress changes were calculated assuming that earthquakes can be modeled as static dislocations in an elastic half-space, and taking into account both the coseismic slip in strong earthquakes and the slow tectonic stress buildup associated with major fault segments. We evaluate if these stress changes brought a given strong earthquake closer to, or sent it farther from, failure. Our modeling results show that the generation of each strong event enhanced the Coulomb stress on along-strike neighbors and reduced the stress on parallel normal faults. We extend the stress calculations up to present and provide an assessment for future seismic hazard by identifying possible sites of impending strong earthquakes.     

Elastic and visco-elastic stress triggering in the South Iceland Seismic Zone due to large earthquakes since 1706

Damaging earthquakes in the South Iceland Seismic Zone (SISZ) occur fairly regularly and often as a series of events with a few days only between individual events. Tolerably reliable information on epicentre locations and mechanisms are available for 13 M ≥ 6 events between 1706 and 2000. For these events, we computed the co- and post-seismic stress fields, hereby approximating the SISZ by a mixed elastic/visco-elastic layered half-space. The horizontal shear stress and the Coulomb stress changes were analysed to detect possible trigger mechanisms, which may aid future earthquake mitigation efforts. We tested several criteria but must conclude that the start of an earthquake series in the SISZ cannot be explained by triggering through previous events. Inside an individual series, however, one may infer triggering. Our results are in contradiction with the findings in other regions of the world. The reason might be related to the fact that the SISZ is not a mature fault zone, in which old faults are re-activated if a certain stress level threshold is passed. In addition, uncertainties in the model parameters as well as the neglect of horizontal variations in the model and of possible stress transfer due to volcanic activity further complicate the evaluation of our results and need to be taken into account in future studies.     

Rupture mechanism of the 1993 Killari earthquake, India: constraints from aftershocks and static stress change

The Killari earthquake of September 29, 1993 (Mw=6.2) in peninsular India triggered several aftershocks that were recorded by a network of 21 stations. We computed the change in regional static stress caused by coseismic slip on the earthquake rupture and correlated it with the aftershocks with a view to constrain some of the rupture parameters of this earthquake. We evaluated the six available estimates of fault plane solutions for this earthquake and concluded that reverse slip on a 42° dipping, N112° trending fault, which extends up to the surface from a depth of 7 km, produces maximum correlation between the increased static stress and aftershock distribution. Our analysis suggests that the majority of coseismic slip occurred on the part of the rupture that lies in the depth range of 3–6.5 km.     

Focal mechanisms of three earthquakes in Finland and their relation to surface faults

Focal mechanisms for three recent earthquakes in Finland are determined using P-wave polarities together with SV/P and SH/P phase amplitude ratios. The events occurred on May 11, 2000 in Toivakka, Central Finland (M_L=2.4), on September 15, 2000 in Kuusamo, northeastern Finland (M_L=3.5), and on May 2, 2001 in Kolari, western Finnish Lapland (M_L=2.9).In order to obtain reliable estimates of the source parameters, one-dimensional crust and upper mantle velocity models are derived for the epicenter areas from deep-seismic sounding results. The starting models are modified by one-dimensional ray tracing using the earthquake observations. The events are relocated by employing P- and S-phase arrival times from the nearest seismic stations and the final velocity models. Synthetic waveforms, calculated with the reflectivity method, are used to further constrain and verify the source and structural parameters.The Toivakka earthquake indicates thrust- or reverse-faulting mechanism at a depth of 5 km. After comparison with aeromagnetic and topographic data we suggest the eastward dipping nodal plane (358°/42°) was the fault plane. The best-fitting fault plane solution of the Kolari earthquake suggests pure thrust-faulting at a depth of 5 km. The nodal plane striking 035°/30° correlates well with surface observations of the postglacial, possibly listric fault systems in the source area. The Kuusamo earthquake (focal depth 14 km) has a normal-faulting mechanism with the nodal planes trending 133°/47° or 284°/47°. Preference is given to the SW-dipping nodal plane, as it seems to coincide with topographic and magnetic lineament directions that have been active after the last ice age.The three earthquakes have occurred in old Precambrian faults and shear zones, which have been reactivated. The reactivated faults are favourably oriented in the local stress field.     

Elastic and inelastic triggering of earthquakes in the North Anatolian Fault zone

Deformation models used to explain the triggering mechanism often assume pure elastic behaviour for the crust and upper mantle. In reality however, the mantle and possibly the lower crust behave viscoelastically, particularly over longer time scales. Consequently, the stress field of an earthquake is in general time-dependent. In addition, if the elastic stress increase were enough to trigger a later earthquake, this triggered event should occur instantaneously and not many years after the triggering event. Hence, it is appropriate to include inelastic behaviour when analysing stress transfer and earthquake interaction.In this work, we analyse a sequence of 10 magnitude M_s > 6.5 events along the North Anatolian Fault between 1939 and 1999 to study the evolution of the regional Coulomb stress field. We investigate the triggering of these events by stress transfer, taking viscoelastic relaxation into account. We evaluate the contribution of elastic stress changes, of post-seismic viscoelastic relaxation in the lower crust and mantle, and of steady tectonic loading to the total Coulomb stress field. We analyse the evolution of stress in the region under study, as well as on the rupture surfaces of the considered events and their epicentres. We study the state of the Coulomb stress field before the 1999 İzmit and Düzce earthquakes, as well as in the Marmara Sea region.In general, the Coulomb stress failure criterion offers a plausible explanation for the location of these events. However, we show that using a purely elastic model disregards an important part of the actual stress increase/decrease. In several cases, post-seismic relaxation effects are important and greater in magnitude than the stress changes due to steady tectonic loading. Consequently, viscoelastic relaxation should be considered in any study dealing with Coulomb stress changes.According to our study, and assuming that an important part of the rupture surface must be stressed for an earthquake to occur, the most likely value for the viscosity of the lower crust or mantle in this region is 5 · 10¹⁷–10¹⁸ Pa · s. Our results cannot rule out the possibility of other time-dependent processes involved in the triggering of the 1999 Düzce event. However, the stress increase due to viscoelastic relaxation brought 22% of the 1999 Düzce rupture area over the threshold value of Δσ_c ≥ 0.01 MPa (0.1 bar), and took the whole surface closer to failure by an average of 0.2 MPa. Finally, we argue that the Marmara Sea region is currently being loaded with positive Coulomb stresses at a much faster rate than would arise exclusively from steady tectonic loading on the North Anatolian Fault.     

青藏高原东南缘活动断层相互作用、应力触发与差别响应

岩石圈、地壳由众多板块、地块及层圈组合而成,是开放性复杂巨系统,活断层在地壳中犹如神经网络也是复杂的开放体系。因此活断层之间存在复杂的相互作用,例如地震断层破裂产生应力扰动,可能触发其他断层破裂,不仅在近处,也会在远处发生。不同的活断层构造产状、活动方式及应变阶段不同,对同一次触发响应不同。触发与差别响应二者的叠加效应在地震活动性上有重要表现。表现之一是区域大震后,余震区外地震活动显著增强处发生继发性大震的概率最大,也即率先出现“远余震、诱发前震、响应震”的地方地震危险性增大,对预测未来地震位置有效。对本区1950—2013年地震统计表明,预测成功率W=1－漏报率－虚报率=80%。同时,对当前地震危险区作了预测。     

青藏高原东南缘活动断层相互作用、应力触发与差别响应

岩石圈、地壳由众多板块、地块及层圈组合而成,是开放性复杂巨系统,活断层在地壳中犹如神经网络也是复杂的开放体系。因此活断层之间存在复杂的相互作用,例如地震断层破裂产生应力扰动,可能触发其他断层破裂,不仅在近处,也会在远处发生。不同的活断层构造产状、活动方式及应变阶段不同,对同一次触发响应不同。触发与差别响应二者的叠加效应在地震活动性上有重要表现。表现之一是区域大震后,余震区外地震活动显著增强处发生继发性大震的概率最大,也即率先出现"远余震、诱发前震、响应震"的地方地震危险性增大,对预测未来地震位置有效。对本区1950—2013年地震统计表明,预测成功率W=1-漏报率-虚报率=80%。同时,对当前地震危险区作了预测。     

Linking dynamic elastic parameters to static state of stress: toward an integrated approach to subsurface stress analysis

Stress is the most important parameter to understand basin dynamics and the evolution of hydrocarbon systems. The state of stress can be quantified by numerical geo-mechanical modelling techniques. These techniques require static elastic parameters of the rocks as input, while tectonic and gravitational forces are given as explicit boundary conditions to compute the local state of stress at different scales. We developed a technique to determine the density and elastic constants at seismic frequencies using full Zoeppritz inversion on angle-dependent seismic reflection data. The dynamic elastic parameters as obtained from seismic data differ from their static equivalents, which are necessary to determine the static state of stress. The dynamic elastic parameters are related to their static equivalents through experimentally obtained relations. In these rock-physics experiments, the static and dynamic elastic parameters are measured simultaneously during different external loading conditions. The experiments used here are all carried out in a tri-axial pressure machine under equal axial stresses. Then pre-stack seismic data analysis in combination with the relation between the static and dynamic elastic parameters, from the rock-physics experiments, provides the input parameters for geo-mechanical modelling.     

Focal mechanism inversion in the Giudicarie–Lessini seismotectonic region (Southern Alps, Italy): Insights on tectonic stress and strain

A set of 41 focal mechanisms (1989–2006) from P-wave first polarities is computed from relocated seismic events in the Giudicarie–Lessini region (Southern Alps). Estimated hypocentral depths vary from 3.1 to 20.8 km, for duration magnitudes (M_D) in the range 2.7–5.1. Stress and strain inversions are performed for two seismotectonic zones, namely G (Giudicarie) and L (Lessini). This subdivision is supported by geological evidence, seismicity distribution, and focal mechanism types. The available number of data (16 in G, 22 in L) does not make possible any further subdivisions. Seismotectonic zones G and L are undergoing different kinematic regimes: thrust with strike-slip component in G, and strike-slip in L. Principal stress and strain axes in each sub-region show similar orientations. The direction of maximum horizontal compressive stress is roughly perpendicular to the thrust fronts along the Giudicarie Belt in zone G, and compatible with right-lateral strike-slip reactivation of the faults belonging to the Schio-Vicenza system in zone L. On the whole, kinematic regimes and horizontal stress orientations show a good fit with other stress data from focal mechanisms and breakouts and with geodetic strain rate axes.     

2022年9月17日中国台湾地震序列的触发机制及其动力学成因

2022年9月17—18日, 中国台湾先后发生台东县MS6.5和花莲县MS6.9两次强震及多次余震。两次强震均为逆走滑型地震, 且震中都位于台湾纵谷断裂带, 该地区构造复杂, 为晚中生代古太平洋板块朝东亚陆缘的消减带, 具有逆冲型构造应力背景。对纵谷断裂带周围地区历史上发生过的地震进行统计发现, 大部分地震为逆断型。为探究该地区此次发生逆走滑型地震的原因及其与构造应力场的关系, 首先通过搜集研究区相关的地震震源机制, 反演该地区的构造应力场, 明确其是以走向为北西西向的压应力为主的应力场; 然后将应力场投影到走向、倾角不同的断层面上, 发现一些节面上表现出较大的相对剪应力和较小的相对正应力, 说明这些节面上具有较强的剪切作用和较小的摩擦力, 容易发生错动而产生逆断型、逆走滑型和走滑型的地震。同时, 为明确短时间内两次强震间的触发关系, 通过计算MS6.5地震在MS6.9地震破裂面和滑动方向上产生的库伦破裂应力变化发现, MS6.9地震约在0.02MPa的库伦破裂应力触发下发生。相关结论对研究台湾纵谷带地震的发震机理和地球动力学具有一定的指导意义。     

由多个地震震源机制解求福建东南沿海地区平均应力场

基于震源断层面的空间取向和滑动方向,写出力轴张量在地理坐标系中的表达式,进而给出计算平均力轴张量及主值的方法,即通过求解相应的本征方程得到。对使用多个震源机制解中T,B,P轴参数计算平均应力场的正确性,以许忠淮用滑动方向拟合法反演富蕴、唐山地区平均应力场数据进行计算和验证。选择具有地震构造意义地块或地震带内大量地震的震源机制解研究区域平均应力场。根据福建东南沿海地区47次主要地震的震源机制解,给出了该区应力张量的定量分析结果。该方法物理意义明确,使由大量地震震源机制解资料分析构造应力场的方法走向定量化,并为定量探索区域应力场的整体动态变化成为可能。     

全球海啸地震震源机制解及海啸成因探讨

海啸作为五大海洋自然灾害之一,严重威胁着人类生命财产安全。近些年来,国内外学者对地震海啸进行了大量研究,主要针对海啸的生成、传播、爬高和淹没的数值模拟,以及古海啸沉积物进行研究,但是对于海啸地震震源机制的研究还比较欠缺,尤其是缺乏对震级小于6.5的海啸地震的研究。针对我国的地震海啸研究现状,强调震级小于6.5地震引发海啸的问题不容忽视。本文归纳整理了全球766次地震海啸,利用三角图分类基本法则对海啸地震震源机制解进行分类,并对其中341个发生在1976年后的海啸地震进行震源机制解分析,对其中633次海啸浪高进行统计学方法分析研究。本文认为逆冲型、正断型、走滑型和奇异型机制地震均能引发海啸,逆冲型地震引发的海啸占比最大,震级小于6.5级地震引发的海啸的浪高也有高达10 m的情况,也能产生巨大破坏性。逆冲型、正断型、奇异型地震可直接引起海底地形垂向变化,进而引发海啸,而走滑型地震引发海啸则可能有两种原因,一种是走滑型地震并非纯走滑型而是带有正断或逆冲分量从而引发海啸,另外一种是走滑型地震引发海底滑坡导致海底地形变化进而产生海啸。从海啸地震震源深度分析,能产生海啸的地震震源深度97%以上都是浅源地震,主要集中在30 km深度以内,但是也有中深源地震海啸。本文综合海啸地震的震源特点、我国地理位置以及以往海啸发生的情况,认为未来我国沿海地区威胁性的地震海啸主要集中在马尼拉海沟和台湾海峡区域,在今后海啸预警方面需要格外重视这些区域,通过建立完善海啸预警系统来减少损失。     

苏鲁-大别造山带岩石圈应力场、构造运动特征以及超高压变质带折返机制的研究

苏鲁-大别造山带是华北、华南地块之间的大地构造交界带.本文分析研究了我国东部地区的3000余年的地震活动性,并根据1918～2006年问苏鲁-大别及其周围地区发生的1000余个地震的震源机制解,系统研究了地壳应力场和构造运动的区域特征,探讨了超高压变质带的折返机制.结果表明,苏鲁带以及华北地区受到太平洋板块向欧亚板块俯冲挤压的同时,受到从贝加尔湖经过大华北直到琉球海沟的广阔地域里存在着的统一的、方位为170°的引张应力场的控制.右旋走滑运动是苏鲁地区和郯庐断裂带的现代构造运动的主要特征.地震发生类型多为右旋走滑型或右旋走滑正断层型地震.华南地区构造应力场主要表现为,受北西西向运动的菲律宾板块向欧亚板块碰撞挤压运动所产生的方位为110～120°挤压应力的控制.华北、华南地块之间现代地壳应力场的分界线,西部与秦岭带大致相符,在大别东开始则逐渐偏离大地构造,到黄山附近向东南偏转,在温州附近转为向东延伸,最终穿过东海直至琉球海沟.研究结果还表明,苏鲁-大别超高压变质带的折返运动机制,即致使大量超高压变质岩折返到上地壳或地表的岩石圈应力场背景原因为,中生代以来大华北地区存在着较强扩张应力场的主控作用.此外,岩石圈地幔的蘑菇云构造增强了华北地区扩张应力场及扩张构造运动,导致形成大量深裂谷、裂隙,深部物质上涌.苏鲁及东大别地带处于或接近蘑菇云构造运动发育地区的中心,深部地幔物质的上涌导致并加剧了超高压变质岩折返到上地壳或地表,形成了世界著名的苏鲁-别超高压变质带.     

贵州纳雍普洒滑坡动力触发机制离散元模拟分析

采用UDEC离散单元法数值模拟,再现了贵州纳雍张家湾镇普洒滑坡在煤层采空区、深大岩溶裂隙、强降雨和回采爆破振动协同作用下的动力响应特征,揭示出该崩滑的动力触发机制与主控因素。结果表明：（1）在原始坡体下伏煤层自下而上依次开采时,其采空区上覆岩层中“冒落带”、“裂缝带”和“弯曲下沉带”范围逐渐扩大,当位于最上部的煤层被开采后,其上覆岩层中发育的“弯曲下沉带”已触及坡脚;期间该原始坡体处于累积变形阶段,其变形具有明显的整体“下座”和“顺时针旋转”特征;（2）在强降雨作用时,已受采空区作用的坡体进入累积变形扩大阶段,其宏观变形仍具有“下座”和“顺时针旋转”特征;（3）当回采爆破振动持续作用时,已受采空区和强降雨耦合作用的变形坡体进入持续“渐进损伤”、“临界崩滑”、“解体破碎”、“震荡抛射”和“堆积压实”动力响应阶段,期间滑坡体宏观位移表现出明显的“下座”、“溃屈”和“顺时针旋转”特征。     

Potential of future seismogenesis in Hebei Province (NE China) due to stress interactions between strong earthquakes

Northeast China, a densely populated area, is affected by intense seismic activity, which includes large events that caused extensive disaster and tremendous loss of life. For contributing to the continuous efforts for seismic hazard assessment, the earthquake potential from the active faults near the cities of Zhangjiakou and Langfang in Hebei Province is examined. We estimate the effect of the coseismic stress changes of strong (M ⩾ 5.0) earthquakes on the major regional active faults, and mapped Coulomb stress change onto these target faults. More importantly our calculations reveal that positive stress changes caused by the largest events of the 1976 Tangshan sequence make the Xiadian and part of Daxing fault, thus considered the most likely sites of the next strong earthquake in the study area. The accumulated static stress changes that reached a value of up to 0.4 bar onto these faults, were subsequently incorporated in earthquake probability estimates for the next 30 years.     

Numerical modeling of seismic triggering,evolution, and deposition of rapid landslides: Application to Higashi–Takezawa (2004)

A mathematical model is developed for the dynamic analysis of earthquake‐triggered rapid landslides, considering two mechanically coupled systems: (a) the accelerating deformable body of the slide and (b) the rapidly deforming shear band at the base of the slide. The main body of the slide is considered as a one‐phase mixture of Newtonian incompressible fluids and Coulomb solids sliding on a plane of variable inclination. The evolution of the landslide is modeled via a depth‐integrated model of the Savage–Hutter type coupled with: (a) a cyclic hysteretic constitutive model of the Bouc–Wen type and (b) Voellmy's rheology for the deformation of the material within the shear band. The original shallow‐water equations that govern the landslide motion are appropriately reformulated to account for inertial forces due to seismic loading, and to allow for a smooth transition between the active and the passive state. The capability of the developed model is tested against the Higashi–Takezawa landslide. Triggered by the 2004 Niigata‐ken Chuetsu earthquake, the slide produced about 100m displacement of a large wedge from an originally rather mild slope. The mechanism of material softening inside the shear band responsible for the surprisingly large run‐out of the landslide is described by a set of equations for grain crushing‐induced pore‐water pressures. The back‐analysis reveals interesting patterns on the flow dynamics, and the numerical results compare well with field observations. It is shown that the mechanism of material softening is a crucial factor for the initiation and evolution of the landslide, while viscoplastic frictional resistance is a key requirement for successfully reproducing the field data. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Static Stress Triggering Effects Related with M_s8.0 Wenchuan Earthquake

In this article, firstly, we calculated and analyzed the patterns of Coulomb stress changes induced by a sequence of strong earthquakes that occurred in Songpan (松潘), Sichuan (四川) Province in 1973 and 1976, and discovered that the Ms8.0 Wenchuan (汶川) earthquake of 2008 was epicentered in a relevant Coulomb stress triggering zone. This suggests that the Coulomb stress on the middle and southern segments of the Longmenshan (龙门山) fault zone increased after the Songpan sequence of strong earthquakes, and the st...     

Increasing critical sensitivity of the Load/Unload Response Ratio before large earthquakes with identified stress accumulation pattern

The Load/Unload Response Ratio (LURR) method is proposed for short-to-intermediate-term earthquake prediction [Yin, X.C., Chen, X.Z., Song, Z.P., Yin, C., 1995. A New Approach to Earthquake Prediction — The Load/Unload Response Ratio (LURR) Theory, Pure Appl. Geophys., 145, 701–715]. This method is based on measuring the ratio between Benioff strains released during the time periods of loading and unloading, corresponding to the Coulomb Failure Stress change induced by Earth tides on optimally oriented faults. According to the method, the LURR time series usually climb to an anomalously high peak prior to occurrence of a large earthquake. Previous studies have indicated that the size of critical seismogenic region selected for LURR measurements has great influence on the evaluation of LURR. In this study, we replace the circular region usually adopted in LURR practice with an area within which the tectonic stress change would mostly affect the Coulomb stress on a potential seismogenic fault of a future event. The Coulomb stress change before a hypothetical earthquake is calculated based on a simple back-slip dislocation model of the event. This new algorithm, by combining the LURR method with our choice of identified area with increased Coulomb stress, is devised to improve the sensitivity of LURR to measure criticality of stress accumulation before a large earthquake. Retrospective tests of this algorithm on four large earthquakes occurred in California over the last two decades show remarkable enhancement of the LURR precursory anomalies. For some strong events of lesser magnitudes occurred in the same neighborhoods and during the same time periods, significant anomalies are found if circular areas are used, and are not found if increased Coulomb stress areas are used for LURR data selection. The unique feature of this algorithm may provide stronger constraints on forecasts of the size and location of future large events.