Paleo-productivity evolution across the Permian-Triassic boundary and quantitative calculation of primary productivity of black rock series from the Dalong Formation,South China

The change of the primary productivity across the Permian-Triassic boundary(PTB)remains controversial.In this study,records from two deep-water sections in South China(Xiakou and Xinmin sections)show the primary productivity decreased gradually from the latest Permian to the earliest Triassic,and five evolutionary stages Increase-Decrease-Recovery-RecessionStagnation)can be observed from Clarkina changxingensis-C.deflecta to Hindeodus parvus-Isarcicella isarcica zones.Primary productivity decreased abruptly from the base of C.meishanensis zone.Besides,for adjusting to the deterioration of the oceanic environment,the primary producers in the oceanic surface had changed to acritarch and cyanobacteria,which were more tolerant of stressful environment.Then the producers were under huge stagnation in the H.parvus-I.isarcica zone.The values of quantitative calculation of the primary productivity from the black rock series in the Dalong Formation were very high,corresponding to that of an upwelling area in modern ocean,which shows that the strata of the Dalong Formation in the study region are potential hydrocarbon source-rocks.This result may come from the fact that South China craton was located at the equatorial upwelling area during the Permian-Triassic transitions.But organic matter contents were different in various sections because they could be affected by redox conditions and diagenesis process after burial.     

Chemical kinetics study of hydrocarbon regeneration from organic matter in carbonate source rocks and its significance

In the comparison research of hydrocarbon regeneration, a low maturity carbonate source rock is heated to different temperatures in a gold tube to obtain a series of samples with different maturities. Then, the heated samples, before and after extraction, are subjected to Rock-Eval pyrolysis through a thermal simulation of hydrocarbon regeneration in order to inspect pyrolysis characteristics and probe into the characteristics of the chemical kinetics of each sample. The results indicate that, whether hy- drocarbon regeneration peak is delayed or advanced, the potential of hydrocarbon regeneration is closely related to the expulsion amount and breakdown maturity of primary hydrocarbon generation. After extraction, the average activation energy of artificially maturated samples increases with the in- creasing maturity, but the chemical kinetic properties of un-extracted samples decrease. The calibrated chemical kinetic models that describe extracted and un-extracted samples are applied to the Bohai Bay and the Songliao Basin, and the results indicate that the combination of the two models can explain some contradictory conclusions previously reported. These results also facilitate the quantitative evaluation of the amount of hydrocarbon regeneration by the chemical kinetic method.     

Chemocline instability and isotope variations of the Ediacaran Doushantuo basin in South China

Stable isotope analyses in sections across a shelf to basinal transect of the Ediacaran Doushantuo basin show substantial isotope variabilities. In Songlin section where sediments were deposited in an intrashelf basin, δ 13C values are persistently negative (_3‰ to _5‰, VPDB) through the entire Doushantuo Formation, similar to those obtained from the slope section in Wuhe (_5‰ to _10‰, VPDB). Shallow water sections in Weng'an and Duoding show two broad δ 13C anomalies overprinted with significant meter-scale variations, but none of the curves has similar absolute δ 13C values compared to the Yangtze Gorges areas in South China and other sections globally. Such isotope variations, if partially recording ancient seawater signature, imply spatial and temporal chemocline instability in the Doushantuo basin. In combination with available δ 13C records from other Ediacaran successions globally, the data from the Doushantuo basin are consistent, in first order, with the existence and oxidation of a large dissolved organic carbon (DOC) reservoir in Ediacaran oceans, but imply local environmental controls on Neoproterozoic isotope values and call attentions for using δ 13C anomalies as time lines in stratigraphic correlation.     

The hydrocarbon generation mechanism and the three-stage type model of hydrocarbon generation for carbonate source rocks

The diagenetic mechanism and process of carbonate rocks, which is different to that of clastic rocks, decides the existence of different existing state organic matters in carbonate rocks. This has been verified by both the microscopic observation of organic petrology and the analysis of organic geochemistry of many samples. Based on the hydrous pyrolysis simulation experiment of the low-mature carbonate rocks, the contrasting study on the yield and their geochemistry characteristics of different existing state soluble organic matters of a series of various maturity samples shows that the different existing state organic matters make different contributions to hydrocarbon generation during every evolution state. So that, the hydrocarbon generation process of carbonate rocks can be summarized as the following three stages: the first is the direct degradation of biogenic bitumen macromolecules during the immature stage, the second is the thermal degradation of a large amount of kerogen at the mature stage, the last stage is the expulsion or release of inclusion organic matter owing to the increased thermal expansion pressure during the high evolution stage. Part of achievements of the Eighth Five-Year National Science-Technology Key-Task Project “85-102-02-07”.     

Sedimentary environment and development controls of the hydrocarbon source beds:Middle and Upper Proterozoic in northern North China

Problem on development control of marine source bed hold in Chinese petroleum industry progression. The Hongshuizhuang Formation,Tieling Formation and Xiamaling Formation in the Middle and Upper Proterozoic are important hydrocarbon source beds in northern North China, and investigation of their sedimentary environments and the controls has great significance for petroleum exploration in North China. Based on sedimentology (sequence stratigraphy), palaeoecology, sedimentary geochemistry, and sedimentary palaeogeography, their development pattern is discussed. All these studies indicate that the development controls of the hydrocarbon source beds include a favorite palaeogeographic location, exceeding propagation of biomes in low and middle latitudes, anoxic environments, enrichment of phosphorus element and the adsorption of clay minerals during the preservation of organic matter in the marine carbonates.     

Characteristics of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion in matrix and stylolite of carbonate rocks

Characteristics of organic matter content, hydrocarbon generation and expulsion of carbonate rocks are discussed by analysis of organic carbon and pyrolysis. There is a strong inhomogeneity in distribution of organic matter in carbonate rocks. The organic matter abundance is higher in stylolites, carbonate varves or marls, while it is the lowest in matrixes (purer carbonate rocks around stylolites). Because of stable thickness and broad area, marls and carbonate varves may become good source rocks. At the same depth, stylolites, carbonate varves and matrixes generate and expel hydrocarbons almost at the same time. Expulsion efficiency of carbonate varve is the highest; that of rnatrixes is the lowest and that of stylolites is between marl’s or carbonate varve’s and matrix’s. Project supported by the Science and Technology Research of the 9th Five-Year Plan from China National Petroleum & Gas Company.     

多阶段成岩作用对深层碳酸盐岩岩石物理性质的影响——以四川盆地震旦系灯影组四段为例

国内深层-超深层碳酸盐岩储层普遍经历多阶段、多期次的成岩作用改造,非均质性极强,致使脱离地质背景的岩石物理分析方法难以准确地给出岩石物理变化规律与储层特征之间的联系.本文通过对合川地区震旦系灯影组四段深层白云岩岩石物理性质的测量,并结合岩石学特征分析、多尺度孔隙结构分析及沉积环境的划分,在成岩作用过程框架下分析岩石物理特征的变化规律.研究结果表明,目标层段白云岩差异性成岩过程形成了不同的岩石孔隙结构特征与微观结构特征.丘滩相高能微生物白云岩分别经历同生期微生物白云岩化与渗透回流白云岩化作用、准同生期选择性溶蚀作用、埋深白云岩化作用以及构造-热液白云岩化,形成的晶粒白云岩主要为致密"焊接"型和紧密型白云石晶体接触边界,溶蚀孔隙发育,微裂隙与孔喉共同作为流体渗流通道.滩间海低能硅质、泥质与灰质云岩主要经历弱毛细管浓缩白云岩化作用、强机械压实致密化与埋深白云岩化作用,形成的晶粒白云岩存在致密"焊接"型、黏土型、石英胶结型与方解石型晶体接触边界,孔隙以残余原生粒间或晶间孔为主,以微裂隙作为主要的流体渗流通道.晶粒边界性质与孔隙结构共同控制了样品的宏观物性及地震弹性性质,相同晶粒边界的样品具有一致的纵波-横波速度和纵波速度-速度比变化关系.微裂隙等软孔隙对纵、横波速度影响程度的差异造成有效压力-速度、纵波-横波速度、纵波速度-速度比、孔隙度-速度关系以及孔隙尺度流体相关频散作用的强弱发生明显变化.研究结果可为深层碳酸盐岩的储层特征地震预测提供岩石物理依据,并可作为示例形成在地质过程中研究岩石物理特征演化的新方法.     

The geobiological formation process of the marine source rocks in the Middle Permian Chihsia Formation of South China

The Chihsia Formation is one of the four sets of regional marine hydrocarbon source rocks from South China.In the past two decades,detailed geochemical and sedimentological studies have been carried out to investigate its origination,which have demonstrated that the high primary productivity plays a primary role in the deposition of sediments enriched in the organic matter.However,the mechanism of this high productivity and the path of the deposition and burial of the organic matter have always been a mystery.Based on the previous studies on the Shangsi Section in Guangyuan City,Sichuan Province,we proposed that the development of the equatorial upwelling due to the sea level rise is responsible for the relatively high productivity in the Chihsia Formation.The sea waters with high nutrient were transported by the sub-surface currents along the equator.High organic carbon flux was deposited on the deeper shelf,and then decomposed by bacteria,leading to the occurrence of anaerobic respiration.The metabolism of the microorganisms consumed the dissolved oxygen in waters,which was in favor of the preservation of the organic matter.This suggested geobiological model integrating with paleoclimatology,paleoceanography and geomicrobiology will help us to understand the causes of this particular sedimentary sequence.     

Occurrence, thermal evolution and primary migration processes derived from studies of organic matter in the Lucaogou source rock at the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, NW China

The Lucaogou Formation carbonate-rich oil shale source rock is exposed at the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, NW China. We have sampled it in detail and conducted microstructural, mineralogical and geochemical studies, including thin section petrography, UV fluorescence petrography, X-ray diffraction, vitrinite reflectance, bitumen reflectance, fluid inclusion analysis and Raman spectroscopy. Organic matter is disseminated through the carbonate-bearing siltstone source rocks and concentrated in numerous bedding parallel stylolites and in two sets of carbonate veins, one along bedding parallel fractures and the other cross-cutting stylolites and bedding. The research about maturity of organic matter finds vitrinite reflectance values increase from the dispersed kerogen (0.64%) to the stylolites (the one of oriented vitrinite is 0.72% and the one of migrated bitumen is 2.38%); Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in veins containing hydrocarbon fluid inclusions show an increase from 178.5℃ in the bedding parallel veins to 222℃ in the cross-cutting veins, confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. These results support a model of progressive heating accompanied by fluid loss during later stages of thermal maturation of source rock and the onset of primary migration. Obviously, the occurrence of organic matter is the trace of hydrocarbon primary migration, and the bedding lamination surfaces and cross-cutting fissures are the principal pathways of hydrocarbon-bearing fluids migration. Bedding lamination surfaces evolved into stylolites along the earliest primary migration pathways, followed by bedding parallel and cross-cutting fissures.     

On the development mechanism of the lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks of Chang 91 member in Ordos Basin

As revealed from recent drilling and organic geochemical testing and research, a series of lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks was discovered in the upper section of the Chang 9 oil reservoir member of upper Triassic in Ordos Basin. The hydrocarbon source rocks show average TOC content as high as 5.03%, average bitumen "A" content as high as 0.8603%, and good quality organic precursors, which are of the sapropelic type mainly derived from lower aquatic plants and have reached the thermal evolution stage featured by oil-producing climax. Generally the lacustrine high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks were developed in local depressions of a lake basin, and the Chang 91 member was particularly formed in a depositional environment characterized by fresh water to weakly saline water, weakly oxidizing to weakly reducing setting and semi-deep lake facies, as was demonstrated by a variety of organic to inorganic geochemical parameters. As a result, high productivity constitutes the principal controlling force for generation of this series of high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks. Deposition of thinly-bedded and laminated tuffs as well as positive Eu anomaly corroborate the possible occurrence of anoxic geological event closely related to contemporaneous volcanic eruption, which would play a key part in development of the Chang 91 member of high-grade hydrocarbon source rocks.     

TOC changes in the process of thermal evolution of source rock and its controls

Through geological observation, simulation in laboratory and numerical modeling, the factors that control the changes in total organic content (TOC) of source rock have been studied. When the formula DTOC=(TOC0-TOC)/TOC0 (original organic carbon content in the rock) is used to measure the TOC (total organic carbon content) changes in the source rock through geological time, the degrees and directions of such changes are determined by losses and relative amounts both of organic and inorganic matter in the source rock. The DTOC equation, which is used to calculate the loss rate in the process of maturation for the source rock, is therefore obtained by analyzing the mass balance relations. For a certain type of source rock with a certain maturation history, the changes of its TOC respond only to the rates of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. In actual cases of geological entities, DTOC generally ranges from -0.05 to 0.2, while the calculated reconversion coefficient (k) for organic carbon content remains between 0.90 and 1.25. Only in an ideal situation where there are extremely high rates of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion can the DTOC value experience significant changes, with k reaching up to 2.5. It is concluded, therefore, that the criterion for carbonates source rock assessment, based on reconverting the TOC to the value of its original state, may have overestimated the course of the "carbon-reduction", which is likely in many cases to make a poor source rock sound better.     

运用测井信息研究烃源岩进展及其资源评价意义

运用测井信息评价烃源岩自开始以来已取得了长足进步,从定性的分析、识别发展到现在可定量计算地化指标,为克服因取芯不足而在区域范围内进行资源评价的难题创造了有利条件,烃源岩中有机质、粘土矿物是影响其测井响应的两个重要变量,测井对岩石中有机质和粘土矿物的类型、丰度、压实程度及富集状态不同而产生的岩石物理、电化学性质的差异,是利用测井信息识别和评价烃源岩的基础,随着油气勘探形势的严峻,烃源岩的测井研究将向更深层次的方向发展,烃源岩的地球化学特征与测井响应特征对应关系的机理研究、发展利用电化学性质进行烃源岩评价的方法、进行烃源岩的岩石物理实验与测井数值模拟将是今后开展烃源岩测井评价研究的新方向.     

Mega-shoaling in carbonate platform of the Middle Triassic Leikoupo Formation,Sichuan Basin,southwest China

Shoaling is a common type of sedimentation in the evolution of carbonate platform,and commonly has poor continuity.This paper presents a newly discovered and rare type of shoaling,i.e.,mega-shoaling in nearly basin scale,which is developed in the Middle Triassic Leikoupo Formation of the Sichuan Basin,southwest China.During the Leikoupo time,the studied Sichuan Basin experienced hot and dry climate conditions and developed a carbonate platform within a restricted epicontinental sea.In B sub-layer of the Lei-1-1 sub-member of the Leikoupo Formation a series of grainstones of shoal facies accumulated throughout almost the entire basin,thereby generating features associated with basin-scale mega-shoaling.By detailed core examination and microscopic observation of thin sections,it is shown that the lithology of this set of grainstones is dominated by doloarenite(calcarenite)followed by oolitic dolomite(limestone).In addition,it contains three types of sedimentary sequences characterized by upward-coarsening and upward-shallowing as the followings:restricted lagoon to platform interior beach;restricted lagoon to platform interior beach and to platform flat;and tidal flat to peritidal beach.Subsequently,a multicyclic stratigraphic division and correlation revealed that this set of grainstones can be well traced and compared horizontally,and is generally isochronous.In addition,a template for logging facies,established based on core calibrations and logging data,was employed to analyze the 235 wells in the basin.The results demonstrate the shoal grainstones to be 10–40 m thick with a15×104km2continuous distribution area.These findings indicate that the carbonate platform developed mega-shoals within a short period of time.The genesis of such a mega-shoaling was investigated by focusing on various shoaling conditions,such as paleo-tectonics,paleo-geomorphology,paleo-climate,sea-level changes,and palaeo-hydrodynamics.A specific combination of independent geological factors creates beneficial geomorphologic conditions for the mega-shoaling including a quiescent paleo-tectonic environment,relatively flat paleo-geomorphology and evaporites filling up and leveling off.In addition,a stably settling carbonate platform underwent sea-level fluctuations through swift transgressions and protracted regressions,which is not only conducive to continuous,multicyclic and superimposed vertical development of grain beaches but also beneficial for the horizontal migration,coalescence and superimposition of individual grain beaches.As a consequence,large-scale and continuously-distributed grain beach sedimentation emerges and mega-shoals develop.     

二次创业与南方海相碳酸盐岩油气勘探的发现与展望

本文概述了中国南方碳酸盐岩地区的油气勘探经历和认识过程.在刘光鼎院士提出的"油气资源二次创业"理论方法指导下,我国在海相碳酸盐岩地区开展的地球物理勘探工作取得了重要成果.海相碳酸盐岩地区具有更复杂的地质构造和演化过程,该类地区寻找油气是世界性难题,传统勘探手段已不适用.本文给出了该类地区进行地球物理勘探的新思路、新方法、新技术,并以举世瞻目的普光大气田的发现说明了新方法的合理性和优势.文章最后给出在南方海相碳酸盐岩地区进行油气地球物理勘探的发展远景.     

中国南海蚀变火成岩导电机理研究与低阻成因分析

近年来, 随着油气资源勘探开发的不断发展, 火成岩储层越来越受到关注.岩性矿物和孔隙结构的复杂程度造成了蚀变火成岩储层测井评价困难的问题.蚀变程度、润湿性、蚀变矿物种类、孔隙结构以及复杂的流体分布形式对其导电机理的影响尚不明确, 这也制约了蚀变火成岩导电和饱和度模型的研究.本文基于多组分数字岩心, 利用有限元和数学形态法进行岩石电性模拟, 并依据地质客观规律合理构造变蚀变程度、变孔隙度和混合润湿性的数字岩心, 有效分析了上述因素对蚀变火成岩导电机理的影响机制.多组分数字岩心构建和蚀变火成岩储层的低阻成因分析, 为蚀变火成岩储层测井评价提供了理论基础, 也为蚀变火成岩数字岩心数值模拟提供了技术支撑.

     

Rhenium-osmium isotope constraints on the age and source of the platinum mineralization in the Lower Cambrian black rock series of Hunan-Guizhou provinces,China

The bottom of the Lower Cambrian series is an important bed typical of boundary event. The bed had been enriched with many useful elements such as Ni, Mo, Cu, Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir and Pt, many rare and dispersed elements such as Cd, Se, Tl, …     

The use of the Schmidt Hammer and Equotip for rock hardness assessment in geomorphology and heritage science: a comparative analysis

Rapid, field‐based measurements of rock hardness are of use in investigating many geomorphological and heritage science problems. Several different methods are now available for taking such measurements, but little work has been done to assess their comparability and strengths and weaknesses. We review here the capabilities of two types of Schmidt Hammer (Classic N type and Silver Schmidt BL type) alongside two types of Equotip (standard type D and Piccolo) for investigating rock hardness in relation to rock weathering on various types of sandstone and limestone, as well as basalt and dolerite. Whilst the two Schmidt hammers and the two Equotips show comparable results when tested at 15 individual sites, interesting differences are found between the Equotip and Schmidt Hammer values which may reveal information about the nature of weathering on different surfaces. Operator variance is shown to be an issue in particular for the Equotip devices, which also exhibit higher variability in measurements and necessitate larger sample sizes. Carborundum pre‐treatment also has varying effects on the data collected, depending on the nature of the surface studied. The Equotip devices are shown to be particularly useful on smaller blocks and in situations where edge effects may affect Schmidt Hammer readings. We conclude that whilst each device contributes to geomorphological research, they do not necessarily produce comparable information. Indeed, using Schmidt Hammer and Equotip in combination and looking at any differences in results may provide invaluable insights into the structure of the near‐surface zones and the nature of weathering processes. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

河西走廊早新生代红层次生剩磁及其对原生剩磁影响评价

系统研究了河西走廊火烧沟组陆相红层200个采点岩石的热退磁行为和17个代表性样品的岩石磁学特征,结果表明有102个采点可以分离出A、B、C三个剩磁分量,有82个采点只有一个分量(C分量),16个采点只能分离出A、B分量.A、B分量分别由针铁矿和磁赤铁矿携带,C分量在砂岩中由磁铁矿携带,在泥质砂岩和泥岩中由磁铁矿和赤铁矿共同携带.A、B分量剩磁方向随机分布,不能获得置信水平的古地磁平均方向,为次生剩磁.它们的存在并不影响岩石原生剩磁的分离,也不影响原生剩磁信号的稳定性和获得的古地磁数据的可靠性.16个砂岩采点中不能分离出C分量,是由于后生的赤铁矿彻底改变了由磁铁矿携带的原生剩磁组分,在高密度采样的情况下剔除这些采点并不影响古地磁极性柱的构建和解释.     

The distribution characteristic and its significance of compound specific isotopic composition of aromatic hydrocarbon from marine source rock and oil in the Tarim Basin,western China

Aromatic hydrocarbons are generally main distillation of crude oil and organic extract of source rocks. Bicyclic and tricyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be purified by two-step method of chromatography on alumina. Carbon isotopic composition of individual aromatic hydrocarbons is affected not only by thermal maturity, but also by organic matter input, depositional environment, and hydrocarbon generation process based on the GC-IRMS analysis of Upper Ordovician, Lower Ordovician, and Cambrian source rocks in different areas in the Tarim Basin, western China. The subgroups of aromatic hydrocarbons as well as individual aromatic compound, such as 1-MP, 9-MP, and 2,6-DMP from Cambrian-Lower Ordovician section show more depleted 13 C distribution. The 13 C value difference between Cambrian-Lower Ordovician section and Upper Ordovician source rocks is up to 16.1‰ for subgroups and 14‰ for individual compounds. It can provide strong evidence for oil source correlation by combing the 13 C value and biomarker distribution of different oil and source rocks from different strata in the Tarim Basin. Most oils from Tazhong area have geochemical characteristics such as more negative 13C9-MP value, poor gammacerane, and abundant homohopanes, which indicate that Upper Ordovician source rock is the main source rock. In contrast, oils from Tadong area and some oils from Tazhong area have geochemical characteristics such as high 13C9-MP value, abundant gammacerane, and poor homohopanes, which suggest that the major contributor is Cambrian-Lower Ordovician source rock.     

Mining seismicity, gas outburst and the significance of their relationship in the study of physics of earthquake source

This paper presents an overview of mining seismicity, gas outburst and their origin. The internal relation of mining seismicity and gas outburst in the dynamic process is studied on the basis of the fact that these disasters sometimes occur simultaneously. The examples show a close relationship between mining seismicity and gas outburst in high gassy coal mines. It is proposed that strong mine shocks plus the response of low value and delay time are early warning signals. The mechanism of the relationship between mining seismicity and gas outburst is analyzed by using the location of mining shocks, focus mechanism, cause of mining shocks and conditions of gas outburst. The trigger action of gas fluid on mining shocks, especially the effect of the anomalous property of supercritical fluid on the preparation and occurrence of mining shocks is discussed. According to the similarity between min-ing-induced earthquakes and tectonic earthquakes in terms of mechanism, the significance of the above results in the study of physics of earthquake source is also discussed.