中国氢氟碳化物、全氟化碳和六氟化硫排放源初步估算

通过调研大量资料和统计分析,初步估算出1995年中国氢氟碳化物（HFCs）、全氟化碳（PFCs）和六氟化硫（SF6）这6种温室气体的排放量,分别为2244、2581.2和215t,分别占当年全球排放总量的0.9%、6.45%和3.7%。     

中国汽车空调行业HFC-134a需求和排放预测

 近年来HFC-134a作为中国汽车空调行业CFC-12制冷剂最主要的替代品,其消费量增长迅速,是中国消费量最大的HFCs（氢氟烃类物质）。以2005年为基线,通过制冷剂替代、技术进步、熟练操作和政策控制等情景假设,预测了中国汽车空调行业HFC-134a的需求量及排放量。结果表明：到2010和2015年,汽车空调HFC-134a的消费量将分别接近2.0万和3.5万t,排放量将分别接近1.6万和3.0万t,约折合排放21.0 和39.0 Mt CO₂当量。上述排放相对基线情景（即维持当前政策措施和不开展回收活动）,2010年和2015年减排温室气体分别为6.7 和13.0 Mt CO₂当量。     

中国控制和管理氢氟碳化物的机遇与挑战

控制温室气体排放、减缓气候变化已成为国际社会关注的热点,中国作为温室气体排放大国,承受着巨大的国际压力。未来一段时间内,如果按照发达国家的技术路线,中国的氢氟碳化物（HFCs）的生产和消费将快速增长,其排放量将迅速增加。采用低全球增温潜势（GWP）技术及采取减排措施,HFCs领域具有很大减排潜力;将HFCs减排纳入中国减排温室气体的整体战略中,对推进国家水平的温室气体减排将作出重要贡献。当前,中国面临着重要机遇,比如针对含氟温室气体相对完备的履约机制可保证一定的减排技术转让和资金支持,履约行动将促进相关行业的节能减排与技术创新等;同时中国也面临着挑战,比如HFCs的巨大消费需求及其排放量的迅速增长,尤其是HFCs替代技术存在局限性等。     

中国汽车空调行业淘汰HFC-134a技术选择与政策建议

HFC-134a在中国汽车空调行业广泛使用,并已成为中国目前排放量最大的有意生产和使用的HFCs之一。欧盟和美国已经颁布相关法律法规控制包括HFC-134a在内的含氟温室气体的消费和排放。如果选择低全球变暖潜势（GWP）替代技术,中国汽车空调行业将具有巨大的温室气体减排潜力;伴随着汽车空调系统需求呈现的多样化,现有替代技术如HFO-124yf、HFC-152a、CO₂等各有优势和不足,需要综合考虑它们的经济成本、市场化可行性以及安全风险和环保标准;制定HFC-134a淘汰政策、积极推进替代技术的研究和应用,以积极响应国际社会加快淘汰HFC-134a的行动,也是落实2014年《中美气候变化联合声明》中提出的关于削减全球氢氟碳化物的行动。     

中国三氟甲烷处置政策分析及建议

通过分析减排量核查报告,得出2014年政策实施带来了6078.20万t CO₂e的三氟甲烷（HFC-23）减排,占“十二五”氢氟碳化物（HFCs）累计减排目标的21.7%。此外,通过分析政策面临的问题,从监测方法学、政策设计和后续运行监管3个方面,对政策的后续运行及2020年后HFC-23的减排提出了建议。     

双碳目标下建立碳排放总量控制制度的思考与展望

中国在碳达峰碳中和的“1+N”政策体系中提出要将能耗双控过渡到碳排放双控,建立碳排放总量控制制度。已有研究大多关注目标制定、碳排放分配的方法学,或以制度体系设计为对象进行分析,缺乏对分解模式、不同责任主体协同、责任主体与排放源匹配等制度关键问题的讨论。文中从制度实施角度着眼,梳理国内外控制碳排放的相关制度实践,提出构建碳排放总量控制制度的“目标分解→出台政策→实施行动→评估调整”全流程管理和要素,并提出各个环节的具体建议：(1)目标分解采用“区域和行业分解相结合”的模式,将发电等纳入碳市场行业的重点排放单位按行业分解和管控,其他排放源（包括一般排放企业、建筑、交通等）按区域分解和管控;(2)政策工具要匹配责任主体的管理模式和排放源的减排重点,发挥不同责任主体间的协同作用,避免重复管理;(3)要建设相应的数据核算和支撑体系,并形成评估反馈和调整机制。     

卤代烃类温室气体采样方法在衢州地区的应用研究

卤代烃类温室气体是全球增温潜势较高的温室气体,大气寿命长,多种物种被列入《蒙特利尔议定书》或《京都议定书》限制排放的物种中。长江三角洲地区经济发展较快,氟化工产业较为发达,是全国卤代烃类温室气体排放量较大的地区之一。采用卤代烃类温室气体采样器,在衢州国家基本气象站进行采样分析,获得了卤代烃类温室气体浓度数据,并与临安区域大气本底站进行对比,最后分析了其与气象要素的相关性。结果表明：(1)衢州第一代消耗臭氧层物质(ODS)的浓度相比临安站浓度偏低,第二代ODS、氢氟碳化物HFCs的浓度比临安站偏高,说明衢州及周边地区的第一代ODS排放控制得较好,但受第二代ODS,尤其是HFCs的影响仍然较大。(2)气象要素中的温度、相对湿度与卤代烃类温室气体的相关系数相对较高。相关系数最高的是二氟一氯甲烷HCFC-22,与温度、相对湿度的相关系数分别为0.87、-0.74,均通过了0.05的显著性检验。     

中国三氟甲烷处置运行补贴政策效果评估

三氟甲烷（HFC-23）是我国排放量最大的氢氟碳化物（HFCs）,受到《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《关于消耗臭氧层物质的蒙特利尔议定书》的管控。2015年我国出台了HFC-23运行补贴政策,支持国内企业开展HFC-23的处置。通过对2014—2018年公开减排数据的汇总分析,发现运行补贴政策的实施有效地激励了企业的减排,受补贴企业HFC-23处置率达98%。2014—2018年累计减排HFC-23约5.20万t,折合6.08亿t CO₂-eq。此外,对照国际公约未来履约义务,建议在运行补贴政策结束后尽快出台明确针对全行业的管控政策,包括定量化减排目标和统一的企业自主监测标准。     

城市面源SO2允许排放总量的网格分配方法

为了弥补A—P值法的不足，本文以A值法和SSIM模式为基础。提出了一种合理分配城市面源SO2允许排放总量的方法。该方法将A值法计算出的面源SO2允许排放总量作为一个约束条件放入SSIM（Source Strength Inversed Model）模式，调整该模式中各组源强的分担率，直至模式反演出的城市控制区各网格内的面源允许排放量之和与约束条件相等为止，此时模式输出的网格面源SO2允许排放量就是城市控制区内面源SO2允许排放总量的分配结果。应用该方法对石家庄市面源SO2允许排放总量进行网格分配，并采用美国工业源长期浓度复合模式（ISC3LT）对石家庄市SO2总量控制效果进行检验。结果表明：采用该方法分配面源SO2允许排放总量，可保证城市总量控制区内各网格上的SO2浓度值均满足国家标准。     

欧盟减排《责任分担条例》修正案分析与启示

欧盟自1997年起就如何通过市场和行政手段“双轮驱动”控制碳排放总量进行不断探索,并逐步建立了较为成熟的碳排放交易体系及减排责任分担机制,已经取得了良好的减排效果。文中梳理分析《责任分担条例》修正案中关于成员国减排目标更新的内容、目标分配的原则与方法、灵活性机制,归纳了欧盟采用行政手段控制碳排放交易系统未涉及部门的温室气体排放的经验,并对中国如何构建充分考虑市场手段和行政手段的CO₂排放总量控制制度提出政策建议。     

中国碳捕集、利用与封存立法和监管体系研究

碳捕集、利用与封存技术（CCUS）被认为是进行温室气体深度减排最重要的技术路径之一。为了促进CCUS技术的发展与应用,欧盟、英国、美国等国家和地区一直积极倡导CCUS实施的制度化和规范化。通过对与CCUS相关的国际公约、重点国家和地区的政策、法规进行系统的梳理,以及对中国的法律制度体系和CCUS政策法规现状的整理,中国CCUS立法和监管体系建立的关键在于解决CO₂的定性、地表权和地下权的确定、保障健康、安全和环境、知识产权的转移和保护、项目审批制度以及激励政策体系的建立等,应有针对性地构建CCUS政策法规体系,逐步完善CCUS政策法规环境,从而推动CCUS在中国的健康发展。     

The effect of vulnerability on climate change mitigation policies

Climate change is likely to adversely affect many countries throughout the world, but the responses of different countries to this threat vary widely. Attempts to explain the differences in countries’ mitigative policies have been largely deficient. This study seeks to assess the degree to which vulnerability may improve the level of explanation of adopted mitigation policies, studying over 90 countries between 1990 and 2011. Vulnerability is defined to be comprised of two basic factors: impacts (expected damages due to climate change) and adaptive capacity (the ability to adjust to these damages). As there may be a gap between declared and implemented policies, these components of mitigation policy are examined separately. In addition, other variables which mediate between these ‘extreme ends’ of mitigation policies are tested.The effect of vulnerability on climate change mitigation policies is examined by multiple regressions, incorporating a wide range of control variables. The results indicate that climate impacts do not affect mitigation policies. Adaptive capacity has a positive effect on the level of declared policy, but this effect becomes insignificant once implemented policy is examined. However, other tests suggest a possible transition from declarations to actions by high adaptive capacity countries. This finding suggests that high adaptive capacity countries do not view mitigation and adaptation as substitutes. Further analyses indicate that the insignificancy of impacts is caused by the uncertainty in their assessment.     

碳捕获与封存技术潜在的环境影响及对策建议

作为减缓气候变化行动的选择方案之一,碳捕获与封存（CCS）技术受到国际社会特别是发达国家的格外关注,但是能否得到广泛应用,除了要取决于其技术成熟度、成本,在发展中国家的技术普及和转让及其应用技术的能力,政策法规等因素外,其潜在的环境影响及其管理也是目前备受关注的一个问题。因此,针对CCS技术潜在的环境影响以及目前发达国家关于CCS技术环境影响的管理进行了分析,并对我国未来CCS技术的环境管理提出了一些对策建议。     

Estimate of Hydrofluorocarbon Emissions for 2012–16 in the Yangtze River Delta,China

Hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs) have been widely used in China as substitutes for ozone-depleting substances,the production and use of which are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol.China is a major consumer of HFCs around the world,with its HFC emissions in CO_2-equivalent contributing to about 18% of the global emissions for the period2012-16.Three methods are widely used to estimate the emissions of HFCs-namely,the bottom-up method,top-down method and tracer ratio method.In this study,the tracer ratio method was adopted to estimate HFC emissions in the Yangtze River Delta(YRD),using CO as a tracer.The YRD region might make a significant contribution to Chinese totals owing to its rapid economic growth.Weekly flask measurements for ten HFCs(HFC-23,HFC-32,HFC-125,HFC-134 a,HFC-143 a,HFC-152 a,HFC-227 ea,HFC-236 fa,HFC-245 fa and HFC-365 mfc) were conducted at Lin'an Regional Background Station in the YRD over the period 2012-16,and the HFC emissions were 2.4±1.4 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-23,2.8±1.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-32,2.2±1.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-125,4.8±4.8 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-134 a,0.9±0.6 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-152 a,0.3±0.3 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-227 ea and 0.3±0.2 Gg yr~(-1) for HFC-245 fa.The YRD total HFC emissions reached 53 Gg CO_2-e yr~(-1),contributing 34% of the national total.The per capita HFC CO_2-equivalent emissions rate was 240 kg yr-1,while the values of per unit area emissions and per million GDP emissions reached 150 Mg km~(-2)yr~(-1) and 3500 kg yr~(-1)(million CNY GDP)-1,which were much higher than national or global levels.     

减少发展中国家毁林及森林退化排放(REDD)的各方观点及对策建议

减少发展中国家毁林及森林退化的温室气体排放已成为《联合国气候变化框架公约》谈判的重要议题。从该公约的第十一次缔约方大会(COP11)以来,各缔约国就此议题提出了各自的观点,除在方法学等问题上存在争议外,在激励机制和毁林纳入清洁发展机制(CDM)与否上也存在分歧,巴西、中美洲及非洲的发展中国家希望通过基金的方式获得额外的资金和技术支持,而美国、澳大利亚和欧盟等发达国家却更倾向于CDM市场机制。结合中国森林管理方面的现状,分析了中国在此议题上可能受到的影响并提出了谈判的对策建议。     

Comparison of preparatory signal analysis techniques for consideration in the (post-)Kyoto policy process

Our study is a preparatory exercise. We focus on the analysis of uncertainty in greenhouse gas emission inventories. Inventory uncertainty is monitored, but not regulated, under the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Under the Convention, countries publish annual or periodic national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions and removals. Policymakers use these inventories to develop strategies and policies for emission reductions and to track the progress of these policies. However, greenhouse gas inventories contain uncertainty for a variety of reasons, and these uncertainties have important scientific and policy implications. For most countries, the emission changes agreed under the Protocol are of the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty that underlies their combined (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions estimates. Here we apply and compare six available techniques to analyze the uncertainty in the emission changes that countries agreed to realize by the end of the Protocol’s first commitment period 2008–2012. Any such technique, if implemented, could “make or break” claims of compliance, especially in cases where countries claim fulfillment of their commitments to reduce or limit emissions. The techniques all perform differently and can thus have a different impact on the design and execution of emission control policies. A thorough comparison of the techniques has not yet been made but is needed when expanding the discussion on how to go about dealing with uncertainty under the Kyoto Protocol and its successor.     

National leverage points to reduce global pesticide pollution

There is an urgent need to reduce the environmental risk of pesticide pollution worldwide. We here explore national leverage points, using a novel dataset of 21.4 million georeferenced grid cells and a spatial regression discontinuity design. Our analysis lets us separate how much cross-country differences in the risk of pesticide pollution are caused by differences in countries’ agricultural systems and policies and how much is explained by other factors, such as environmental differences between the countries for example (e.g. pest pressures). We estimate that a third of the global cross-country differences in the pesticide pollution risk are caused by differences in countries’ agricultural systems and policies. The main explanations, and thus leverage points for policies, are differences in countries’ pesticide regulations, their share of organic farming, and type of crops that are grown. We find a trade-off between pesticide pollution risk and soil erosion only in the Americas and in Asia, but not elsewhere, and we do not find a trade-off between pesticide pollution risk and crop yield gaps.