Species differences in stomatal control of water loss at the canopy scale in a mature bottomland deciduous forest

In order to evaluate factors controlling transpiration of six common eastern deciduous species in North America, a model describing responses of canopy stomatal conductance (G_S) to net radiation (R_N), vapor pressure deficit (D) and relative extractable soil water (REW) was parameterized from sap flux data. Sap flux was measured in 24 mature trees consisting of the species Carya tomentosa, Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Fraxinus americana, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Liquidambar styraciflua in a bottomland oak-hickory forest in the Duke Forest, NC. Species differences in model coefficients were found during the 1997 growing season. All species showed a reduction in G_S with increasing D. R_N influenced G_S in the overstory shade intolerant L. styraciflua to a larger extent than the other species measured. In addition, despite a severe drought during the study period, only L. tulipifera showed a decline in G_S with decreasing REW. The primary effect of the drought for the other species appeared to be early autumn leaf senescence and abscission. As a result, despite the drought in this bottomland forest accustomed to ample water supply, maximum daily transpiration (1.6 mm) and growing season transpiration (264 mm) were similar to a nearby upland forest measured during a year of above average precipitation. These results may aid in assessing differences in water use and the ability of bottomland deciduous species to tolerate alterations in the frequency or amount of precipitation. Results also suggest little variation in water use among forests of similar composition and structure growing in different positions in the landscape and subjected to large interannual variation in water supply.     

Effectiveness of introducing crop coefficient and leaf area index to enhance evapotranspiration simulations in hydrologic models

Evapotranspiration (ET) is an essential component of the hydrological cycle and plays a critical role in water resource management. However, ET is often overlooked in order to transform rainfall to runoff for better streamflow simulation. Hydrological models are commonly used to estimate areal actual evapotranspiration (AET) after calibration against observed discharge. However, classical approaches are often inadequate to appropriately simulate other hydrologic components. Hence, it is important to introduce natural heterogeneity to enhance hydrological processes and reduce water balance errors. In this study, the effectiveness of introducing a constant crop coefficient (K_c), flux tower‐based K_c, and leaf area index (LAI) to three hydrological models (Three‐Parametric Hydrologic Model [TPHM], Génie Rural à 4 paramètres Journalier [GR4J], and Catchment hydrologic cycle Assessment Tool [CAT]) is assessed for the simulation of daily streamflow and AET in a mountainous mixed forest watershed (8.54 km²) in South Korea. The results show that the streamflow simulations after introduction of K_c and LAI to the original models are quite similar. However, the effectiveness of the AET estimation was significantly enhanced after introduction of the flux tower‐based K_c and LAI. The information criterion computed to compare the models reveals that the flux tower‐based K_c‐simulated AET demonstrated better agreement with the observed AET. The Pearson's correlation coefficients (R²) of the TPHM (8%), GR4J (55%), and CAT (55%) models also showed improvements that were greater than the constant based K_c simulation. Similarly, the limitations of the three models with respect to capturing seasonal variation as well as high and low flows were enhanced after the introduction of the flux tower‐based K_c, which adequately reproduced hydrological processes with minimum water balance errors and bias. A regression analysis revealed the potential of estimating K_c as a linear function of LAI (R² = 0.84). The results of this study indicate that introduction of K_c and LAI to the conceptual rainfall–runoff models can be considered an effective approach to reduce water balance errors and uncertainties in hydrological models and improve the reliability of climate change studies and water resource management.     

Variations of crop coefficient and its influencing factors in an arid advective cropland of northwest China

Understanding the variation and magnitude of crop coefficient (K_c) is important for accurate determination of crop evapotranspiration and water use. In this study, we calculated K_c in an irrigated maize field with ground mulching by eddy covariance evapotranspiration measurements during the whole growing periods in 2009 and 2010 in an arid region of northwest China. A semi‐empirical practical approach for estimating K_c was proposed by introducing the dynamic fraction of canopy cover and incorporating the effect of leaf senescence as a function of days after sowing. The contribution of arid advection of sensible heat resulting from irrigation to K_c and the response of K_c to canopy conductance (G_c) were investigated. The averaged values of daily K_c were lower than typical values obtained previously without mulching due to decreasing effect of mulching on K_c, with 0.82 and 0.80 for the 2 years, respectively. The maximum average K_c occurred at the heading stage, with 1.21 and 1.04 for the 2 years, respectively. The difference of K_c was attributed to the difference of leaf area index. The semi‐empirical practical approach could well estimate the variations of K_c, thus could be a robust and useful tool for the practical users and water managers. The contributions to daily K_c from the arid advection were 4.4–28.0% of the measured K_c. The G_c had stronger control on daily K_c at the early and later stages than at the middle stage. When G_c, leaf area index and relative soil extractable water were lower than the respective threshold values of 20 mm s^?1, 3.0 m² m^?2 and 0.5, the daily K_c increased significantly with the increase of the three factors, and almost remained constant when the three factors were beyond the threshold values. These results are helpful for quantifying contributions of individual factors to K_c, and subsequently improving water management practices according to K_c. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Interannual variation of evapotranspiration in an eastern Siberian larch forest

In a deciduous larch forest in eastern Siberia, the mean and standard deviation of the total evapotranspiration (E) during May to September (day of year (DOY) = 121–274) for 2003–2006 were 181.5 and 26.4 mm, respectively. The interannual variation (IAV) in the total E was caused by the IAV in E for the canopy‐foliated period (DOY = 164–253), not by the IAV in the dates of leaf expansion and leaf fall. For the years with higher total E, E in the canopy‐foliated period was consistently higher, which corresponded to the higher soil water content in these years. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evapotranspiration from a wet temperate grassland and its sensitivity to microenvironmental variables

The eddy covariance and energy balance method was employed to determine evapotranspiration (LE) over a wet temperate C3–C4 co‐existing grassland in Japan. After sensible heat flux (H) was estimated via the eddy covariance technique, LE was calculated as the residual of the energy budget with calibration against the direct measurements of LE by a lysimeter. Daily mean LE varied from 0·8 to 10·5 MJ d⁻¹, with a peak at 16·5 MJ d⁻¹ in late July to early August. Day‐to‐day and seasonal variability in LE was affected appreciably by net radiation (R_n), atmospheric vapour pressure deficit (VPD), canopy surface conductance (g_c) and leaf area index (LAI). Before the canopy closure, LE responded to LAI in a linear manner. However, LE decreased with increasing LAI later in summer. Daytime variation in the decoupling coefficient (Ω) demonstrates that the canopy decoupled from the atmosphere in the morning and LE was primarily driven by the available energy, while in the afternoon the canopy partially coupled to the atmosphere so that LE was sensitive to VPD and g_c. Throughout the whole measurement period, Ω was generally larger than 0·5, suggesting that the available energy contributes more to LE than VPD. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ecosystem water use efficiency in an irrigated cropland in the North China Plain

The eddy covariance technique and the cuvette method were used to investigate water use efficiency in an irrigated winter wheat (Triticum asetivum L.)/summer maize (Zea mays L.) rotation system in the North China Plain. The results show that ecosystem water use efficiency (WUE_e) changed diurnally and seasonally. Daily maximal WUE_e appeared in the morning. WUE_e generally peaked in late April in wheat field and in late July/early August in maize field. From 2003 to 2006, seasonal mean WUE_e was 6.7–7.4 mg CO₂ g⁻¹ H₂O for wheat and 8.4–12.1 mg CO₂ g⁻¹ H₂O for maize. WUE_e was much lower than canopy water use efficiency (WUE_c) under small leaf area index (LAI) but very close to WUE_c under large LAI. With the increase in LAI, WUE_e enlarged rapidly under low LAI but slowly when LAI was higher than one. WUE_e was greater on the cloudy days than on the sunny days. Under the same solar radiation, WUE_e was higher in the morning than in the afternoon. The ratio of internal to ambient CO₂ partial pressure (C_i/C_a) decreased significantly with the increase in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) when PAR was lower than the critical values (around 500 and 1000 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ for wheat and maize, respectively). Beyond critical PAR, C_i/C_a was approximately constant at 0.69 for wheat and 0.42 for maize. Therefore, when LAI and solar radiation was large enough, WUE_e has negative correlation with vapor pressure deficit in both of irrigated wheat and maize fields.     

Variation and attribution of water use efficiency in sunflower and maize fields in an irrigated semi-arid area

Water use efficiency (WUE) links carbon and water exchanges between farmlands and the atmosphere. Understanding the variation and attribution of WUE is essential to reveal the physiological and ecological adaptation mechanisms of crops to the changing environment, and to better allocate, regulate and conserve water resources. However, few studies on the variation and attribution of WUE have been conducted in irrigated arid or semi-arid farmlands. Therefore, in this study, water and carbon fluxes were measured using eddy covariance systems in two farmlands (one sunflower field and one maize field) in a semi-arid irrigation district in China. It was found that the average WUE of sunflower during its full growth period was 1.72 g C kg⁻¹ H₂O, much lower than that of maize (4.07 g C kg⁻¹ H₂O). At each growth stage, the WUE of both crops were negatively correlated with vapour pressure deficit (VPD), net radiation (R_n) and soil water content (SWC). The negative correlations could be attributed to the arid meteorological condition and the relatively abundant soil moisture due to irrigation and shallow groundwater levels. VPD was the main factor affecting WUE, followed by R_n and SWC. It was also found that the response of WUE to crop leaf area index (LAI) and to canopy conductance (g_c) depended on the VPD ranges: when VPD increased, the response of WUE to LAI and to g_c decreased. Our findings could improve the understanding of the coupling effect of water and carbon fluxes over farmland ecosystems in arid and semi-arid irrigation areas and help improve agricultural production and save water resources in such areas.     

Threshold relations for the transport of sediment by overland flow on desert hillslopes

Although the Shields relation was developed for rivers, it has been applied to sediment transport by overland flow. According to the Shields relation, where the critical boundary Reynolds number Re_*c exceeds 40, the critical Shields number F_*c is independent of both Re_*c and the ratio of the critical flow depth to particle diameter d_c/D. Analyses of data collected from runoff plots in southern Arizona reveal that F_*c is positively correlated with both Re_*c and d_c/D. Thus the Shields relation does not apply to overland flow on debris-covered desert hillslopes. Multiple regression analysis is employed to develop alternative threshold relations in which critical boundary shear stress τ_c is related to D and d_c/D (R² = 0.782) and to D and S_c (critical gradient) (R² = 0.625). The computed R² values derive in large part from the spurious correlations of d_c/D and S_c with τ_c. Nevertheless, the relations may be utilized to predict τ_c. In this regard, the latter relation is likely to prove more useful than the former because S_c is generally known, whereas d_c is not. An investigation of the functional relation between τ_c and D reveals that τ_c varies approximately with D² for overland flow on the desert hillslopes under study, whereas the Shields relation predicts a linear relation (i.e. a D exponent of 1). This result is consistent with Cheng's data which show that F_*c varies with (d_c/D)^?1 where 0.4 < d_c/D < 2 and may be explained in terms of increased energy dissipation both in separation zones downslope of particles and in distortion of the water surface as d_c/D decreases. Consequently, larger values of τ_c, and hence F_*c, are required to initiate the transport of particles of a given size D as d_c decreases.     

The vertical heterogeneity of soil detachment by overland flow on the water-level fluctuation zone slope in the Three Gorges Reservoir,China

Periodic submersion and exposure due to the operation of the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) alter the soil properties and plant characteristics at different elevations within the water level fluctuation zone (WLFZ), possibly influencing the soil detachment capacity (D_c), but the vertical heterogeneity of this effect is uncertain. Soil samples were taken from 6 elevation segments (5 m per segment) along a slope profile in the WLFZ of the TGR to clarify the vertical heterogeneity of D_c. Scouring experiments were conducted at 5 slope gradients (17.6%, 26.8%, 36.4%, 46.6%, and 57.7%) and 5 flow rates (10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 L min⁻¹) to determine D_c. The results indicate that the soil properties and biomass parameters of the WLFZ exhibit strongly vertical heterogeneity. D_c fluctuates with increasing elevation, with maximum and minimum average values at elevations of 145–150 m and 165–170 m, respectively. Linear equations accurately describe the relationships between D_c and hydrodynamic parameters, for which the shear stress (τ), stream power (ω), and unit energy of water-carrying section (E) perform much better than the unit stream power (U). Furthermore, a clear improvement is achieved when using a general index of flow intensity to estimate D_c. Furthermore, D_c is significantly and negatively correlated with the mean weight diameter (MWD, p < 0.05) and organic matter content (p < 0.01) but not significantly correlated with other soil properties (p > 0.05). The rill erodibility at elevations of 145–150 m and 170–175 m is greater than that at other elevations. The critical hydraulic parameters were highest in the 165–170 m segments. Both the rill erodibility and the critical parameters fluctuate vertically along the sloping surface. This research highlights the vertical heterogeneity of D_c and is helpful for better understanding the mechanisms responsible for soil detachment in the WLFZ of the TGR.     

Evaporation of perennial semi‐arid woodland in southeastern Australia is adapted for irregular but common dry periods

Measurements of water vapour flux from semi‐arid perennial woodland (mallee) were made for 3 years using eddy covariance instrumentation. There have been no previous long‐term, detailed measures of water use in this ecosystem. Latent energy flux (LE) on a half hourly basis was the measure of the combined soil and plant evaporation, ‘evapotranspiration’ (E_LE) of the site. Aggregation over 3 years of the site measured rain (1136 mm) and the estimated evaporation (794 mm) suggests that 342 mm or 30% of rain had moved into or past the root zone of the vegetation. Above average rainfall during 2011 and the first quarter of 2012 (633 mm, 15 months) would likely have been the period during which significant groundwater recharge occurred. At times immediately after rainfall, E_LE rates were the same or exceeded estimates of potential E calculated from a suitably parameterized Penman–Monteith (E_PMo) equation. Apparent free water E from plant interception and soil evaporation was about 2.3 mm and lasted for 1.3 days following rainfall in summer, while in autumn, E was 5.1 mm that lasted over 5.4 days. The leaf area index (LAI) needed to adjust a wind function calibrated Penman equation (E_PMe) to match the E_LE values could be back calculated to generate seasonal change in LAI from 0.12 to 0.46 and compared well with normalized difference vegetation index; r = 0.38 and p = 0.0213* and LAI calculated from digital cover photography. The apparently conservative response of perennial vegetation evaporation to available water in these semi‐arid environments reinforces the conclusion that these ecosystems use this mechanism to survive the reasonably common dry periods. Plant response to soil water availability is primarily through gradual changes in leaf area. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Spatial variation in soil resistance to flowing water erosion along a regional transect in the Loess Plateau

The factors influencing soil erosion may vary with scale. It remains unclear whether the spatial variation in soil erosion resistance is controlled by regional variables (e.g. precipitation, temperature, and vegetation zone) or by local specific variables (e.g. soil properties, root traits, land use, and farming operations) when the study area enlarges from a hillslope or catchment to the regional scale. This study was performed to quantify the spatial variations in soil erosion resistance to flowing water under three typical land uses along a regional transect on the Loess Plateau and to identify whether regional or local specific variables are responsible for these changes. The results indicated that the measured soil detachment capacities (D_c) of cropland exhibited an irregular trend along the regional transect. The D_c of grassland increased with mean annual precipitation, except for two sites (Yijun and Erdos). The measured D_c of woodland displayed an inverted ‘U’ shape. The changes in rill erodibility (K_r) of three land uses were similar to D_c, whereas no distinguishable trend was found for critical shear stress (τ_c). No significant correlation was detected between D_c, K_r and τ_c, and the regional variables. The spatial variation in soil erosion resistance could be explained reasonably by changes in soil properties, root traits, land use, and farming operations, rather than regional variables. The adjustment coefficient of K_r for grassland and woodland could be well simulated by soil cohesion and root mass density (R² = 0.70, P < 0.01), and the adjustment coefficient of critical shear stress could be estimated with aggregate stability (R² = 0.57, P < 0.01). The results are helpful for quantifying the spatial variation in soil detachment processes by overland flow and to develop process‐based erosion model at a regional scale. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Computer-simulation models of scoria cone degradation

Long-term erosional modifications of the relatively simple morphology of scoria (‘cinder') cones are ideally suited for study by field and computer-simulation methods. A series of temporally-distinct cones in the San Francisco and Springerville volcanic fields of Arizona provides the foundation for documenting the degradational evolution of scoria cones in a semi-arid climate. Progressive changes due to erosion are illustrated by the systematic decrease with increasing age of various morphometric parameters, including scoria cone height, cone height/width ratio (H_co/W_co), crater depth/width ratio, and slope angle. For example, Holocene–latest Pleistocene cones in the San Francisco field have a mean H_co/W_co value of 0.178±0.041, a mean maximum slope angle of 29.7±4.2°, and a mean average slope angle of 26.4±7.3°, whereas the group of Pliocene cones have values of 0.077±0.024, 20.5±5.8°, and 8.7±2.7°, respectively. Comparative morphology of scoria cones is a potentially useful dating tool for mapping volcanic fields.In order to better understand the degradational modifications of these volcanic landforms, we have developed a numerical approach to simulate the surficial processes responsible for the erosion of a typical scoria cone. The simulation algorithm can apply either a linear diffusion-equation model or a model with a nonlinear transport law. Using a finite-difference formulation, the simulation operates upon a three-dimensional scoria cone input as a matrix of elevation values. Utilizing both field and model results, the correlation between changing H_co/W_co value, cone age, and computer time step was expressed graphically to derive comprehensive values of the transport or diffusion coefficient (D_f) for both volcanic fields. For the San Francisco volcanic field, D_f had a calculated value of 21.4 m²/kyr for the linear model and 5.3 m/kyr for the nonlinear model, while for the Springerville volcanic field D_f had a calculated value of 24.4 m²/kyr for the linear model and 6.3 m/kyr for the nonlinear model.     

Differences in seasonality and temperature dependency of stand transpiration and canopy conductance between Japanese cypress (Hinoki) and Japanese cedar (Sugi) in a plantation

In this paper, we present an investigation of interspecies differences in transpiration of the 2 most common plantation forest tree species in Japan, both in the family Cupressaceae with different northern limits of native distribution, Japanese cypress (Hinoki; Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb. et Zucc.) and Japanese cedar (Sugi; Cryptomeria japonica D. Don). The stem sap flow rate was measured in 2 nearby stands of similar leaf area index in a 42‐year‐old plantation. Single‐tree and stand‐scale transpiration rates (E_tre and E_sta, respectively) were observed during an ideal autumn environment. At the stand scale, mean sap flux density of Hinoki was greater than that of Sugi, whereas total sapwood area per ground area was smaller in Hinoki than Sugi. Because the 2 variables had counterbalancing effects on transpiration, E_sta of Hinoki was similar to (94% of) that of Sugi. This offset was also found between the mean E_tre of the 2 species. E_sta was similar between the stands from May to October, whereas E_sta of Sugi was notably greater than that of Hinoki from February to April. During these 3 months, the difference in cumulative E_sta was 21.7 mm, which accounted for 79% of the difference in annual E_sta between Hinoki and Sugi (192 and 219 mm/year, respectively). We found that canopy conductance (G_c) and its sensitivity to the mean vapour pressure deficit during daylight hours in Sugi were particularly high in early spring, whereas those in Hinoki shifted gradually throughout the growing season. This difference was related to the optimal temperature of G_c in Sugi, which was approximately 10 °C lower than that in Hinoki. Our results suggest that plantations of water‐conserving species such as Hinoki produce timber slowly but yield water resources generously. Moreover, for plantations of trees sensitive to high temperature, such as Sugi, managers should be concerned about possible future decline caused by anticipated global warming.     

Assessment of detachment and sediment transport capacity of runoff by field experiments on a silt loam soil

The detachment capacity (D_c) and transport capacity (T_c) of overland flow are important variables in the assessment of soil erosion. They determine respectively the lower and upper limit of sediment transport by runoff and therefore control detachment and deposition pro‐cesses. In this study, the detachment and transport capacity of runoff was investigated by rainfall simulations and overland flow experiments on small field plots. On the bare field plots, it was found that T_c was strongly related to total runoff discharge. This was also observed for the plots covered by maize residues, but T_c was less due to the lower runoff velocity. A simple regression equation was derived to estimate T_c for both bare and covered soil. Comparing our observations with T_c equations mentioned in the literature revealed that T_c equations based on laboratory experiments overestimated, on average, our measurements. Although T_c can be assessed more easily in laboratory experiments, the applicability of the results to field conditions remains questionable. Detachment by runoff was also related to total runoff discharge. The D_c values were, however, 4–50 times smaller than the T_c at corresponding high and low runoff discharge. This indicates that detachment by runoff constitutes only part of the transported sediment. Interrill erosion supplies an important additional amount of sediment. In this study, however, only sealed soils were considered. In the case of freshly tilled, loose soils, the D_c of runoff may be larger, resulting in a larger contribution to the total soil loss. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Determination of critical shear stress of non‐cohesive soils using submerged jet test and turbulent kinetic energy

Laboratory tests using Jet Erosion Testing (JET) apparatus, impinging normally on a horizontal boundary, were conducted to determine the critical shear stress (τ_c) of non‐cohesive soil samples. A three‐dimensional (3D) SonTek/YSI 16 MHz Micro‐Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (MicroADV) was used to measure turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) at a radial limit of entrainment in the wall jet zone and the measurements were used to calculate τ_c of the samples. The results showed that TKE increases exponentially with increasing particle size. The τ_c from this study were comparable (R² = 0.8) to the theoretical τ_c from Shields diagram after bed roughness scale ratio (D/k_s), due to the non‐uniform bed conditions, was accounted for. This study demonstrated that JET and TKE can be used to determine τ_c of non‐cohesive soils. The use of JET and TKE was found to be faster and easier when compared to the conventional approach of using flumes. A relationship of TKE at the onset of incipient motion (TKE_c) and samples’ D₅₀ developed in this study can be used to predict τ_c of non‐cohesive soils under similar non‐uniform conditions. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differences in throughfall drop size distributions in the presence and absence of foliage

ABSTRACT

Throughfall drop size distributions (DSDs) are important for plant–soil interactions. This is the first known study to quantify differences in throughfall DSDs with the presence and absence of foliage. Employing a disdrometer, three parameters solely representing throughfall drip were measured and calculated: maximum drop diameter (D_MAX), median volume diameter of drops (D₅₀D_R) and relative volume percentage of drops (pD_R). Beneath Liriodendron tulipifera L. in Maryland (USA), D_MAX, D₅₀D_R and pD_R were substantially larger when the canopy was unfoliated. In fact, the presence or absence of foliage was one of the primary factors affecting all three throughfall DSDs along with air temperature, according to the boosted regression tree analysis. Experimental results were attributed to differing physical properties of intercepted water between foliated and unfoliated periods and differential water behavior on leaves and bark. Future work should examine the effects of concentrated drip points on the development of throughfall-induced hot spots.

Editor M.C. Acreman; Associate editor F. Hattermann     

Hydrometeorological behaviour of pine and larch forests in eastern Siberia

Seasonal changes in the water and energy exchanges over a pine forest in eastern Siberia were investigated and compared with published data from a nearby larch forest. Continuous observations (April to August 2000) were made of the eddy‐correlation sensible heat flux and latent heat flux above the canopy. The energy balance was almost closed, although the sum of the turbulent fluxes sometimes exceeded the available energy flux (R_n ? G) when the latent heat flux was large; this was related to the wind direction. We examined the seasonal variation in energy balance components at this site. The seasonal variation and magnitude of the sensible heat flux (H) was similar to that of the latent heat flux (λE), with maximum values occurring in mid‐June. Consequently, the Bowen ratio was around 1·0 on many days during the study period. On some clear days just after rainfall, λE was very large and the sum of H and λE exceeded R_n ? G. The evapotranspiration rate above the dry canopy from May to August was 2·2 mm day^?1. The contributions of understory evapotranspiration (E_u) and overstory transpiration (E_o) to the evapotranspiration of the entire ecosystem (E_t) were both from 25 to 50% throughout the period analysed. These results suggest that E_u plays a very important role in the water cycle at this site. From snowmelt through the tree growth season (23 April to 19 August 2000), the total incoming water, comprised of the sum of precipitation and the water equivalent of the snow at the beginning of the melt season, was 228 mm. Total evapotranspiration from the forest, including interception loss and evaporation from the soil when the canopy was wet, was 208–254 mm. The difference between the incoming and outgoing amounts in the water balance was from +20 to ?26 mm. The water and energy exchanges of the pine and larch forest differed in that λE and H increased slowly in the pine forest, whereas λE increased rapidly in the larch forest and H decreased sharply after the melting season. Consequently, the shape of the Bowen ratio curves at the two sites differed over the period analysed, as a result of the differences in the species in each forest and in soil thawing. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Variation in canopy conductance of Cunninghamia lanceolata forest and its response to environmental factors after an extreme rainfall event

Canopy conductance (g_c) is a crucial parameter in simulating evapotranspiration and modulating water exchange, but its variation mechanism has regional uncertainties and complex environmental co-controls. In addition, the effect of extreme rainfall on g_c cannot be ignored under the changing climate. Here, we investigated the variation and environmental controls on g_c and the effect of extreme rainfall events in a Cunninghamia lanceolata forest across the subtropical area of Southern China. In July 2020, an extreme rainstorm hit the source area of the Xin'an River, with the cumulative rainfall on July 7 and 8 reaching 216.6 mm. The thermal diffusion probe method was used to measure the density of sap flow, and the environmental factors such as air temperature (T_a), net solar radiation (R_n) and soil water content (SWC) were monitored during the growing seasons of 2020 and 2021. Ultimately, g_c obtained by the Penman-Monteith equation was adopted since the result from the Köstner equation was overestimated. g_c showed a unimodal curve on the diurnal scale, and this characteristic was more obvious after the extreme rainfall. Daily g_c appeared a fluctuating pattern with a maximum in summer. g_c was simultaneously affected by T_a, R_n, water vapour pressure difference (VPD), SWC, among which T_a was the most significant driving factor at both the diurnal and daily timescales. The regulation of T_a, VPD and SWC on g_c had obvious thresholds, and the most definite response mode was VPD (2020: 1.25 kPa; 2021: 0.95 kPa). SWC and T_a were the dominant factors after the rainfall period, and the promotion effect of VPD on post-rainy days turned to inhibition effect on typical sunny days. These findings will further reveal the water exchange mechanism between atmosphere and vegetation and impacts of environmental factors in subtropical coniferous forests, especially after the extreme rainfall events.     

The effect of expansion ratio on the critical Reynolds number in single fracture flow with sudden expansion

Flow in a single fracture (SF) is an important research subject in groundwater hydrology, hydraulic engineering, radioactive nuclear waste repository and geotechnical engineering. An abruptly changing aperture is a unique type of SF. This study discusses the relation between the values of the critical Reynolds number (Re_c) for the onset of symmetry breaking of flow and the expansion ratio (E) of SF, which is defined as the ratio between the outlet (D) and inlet (d) apertures. This study also investigates the effect of inlet aperture d on Re_c for flow in an SF with abruptly changing apertures (SF‐ACA) using the finite volume method. Earlier numerical and experimental results showed that flow is symmetric in respect to the central plane of the SF‐ACA at small Reynolds number (Re) but becomes asymmetric when Re is sufficiently large. Our simulations show that the value of Re_c decreases with the increasing E, and the relationship between the logarithm of Re_c and E can be described accurately using either a quadratic polynomial function or a logarithmic function. However, the relationship of Re_c and d for a given E value is vague, and Re_c becomes even less sensitive to d when E increases. This study also reveals that the hydraulic gradient (J) and flow velocity (v) follow a super‐linear relationship that can be fitted almost perfectly by the Forchheimer equation. The inertial component (J_i) of J increases monotonically with Re, whereas the viscous component (J_v) of J decreases monotonically with Re. The Re value corresponding to equal inertial and viscous components of J (named as the transitional point Re) decreases when E increases, and such a transitional point Re should be closely related to the critical Reynolds number Re_c, although a rigorous theoretical proof is not yet available. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.