青藏高原东北缘祁连山与酒西盆地结合部深部地壳结构及其构造意义

青藏高原地壳变形加厚机制一直是地学界研究争论的热点问题.青藏高原目前仍然处在持续向外扩张之中,因此青藏高原的边界地带作为高原向外扩张的最前缘地区代表了高原最新的变形状态,是研究青藏高原地壳变形加厚的关键地区.本文以一条穿过青藏高原东北缘祁连山与酒西盆地结合部的深地震反射剖面为基础,结合前人地质、地球物理资料,通过细致的地质构造解译,获得青藏高原东北缘祁连山与酒西盆地结合部位地壳变形以壳内滑脱带为界上、下解耦.滑脱带位于壳内低速层的顶部,深度14~24 km.滑脱带之上的地壳部分以一系列南倾、北冲,并向下终止于滑脱带的逆冲断裂变形为主,指示了青藏高原向北的扩张方式;滑脱带之下的地壳以Moho面作为变形标志,指示了复杂的挤压缩短变形.据此我们推测上、下地壳的解耦缩短变形对青藏高原东北缘地壳的变形加厚起到了决定性的作用,甚至在整个青藏高原地壳的变形加厚过程中都起到了重要作用.     

Crustal structure of northeastern Tibetan plateau and Ordos block: Waveform interpretation of the Maqen-Jingbian seismic refraction profile

The Maqen-Jingbian wide-angle seismic reflection and refraction experiment was carried out in 1998, which aims at determining detailed structure in the crust and top of the upper mantle and understanding structural relation between the northeastern Tibetan plateau and the Ordos block. The 1-D crustal models inferred by waveform inversion show strong variations in crustal structure, which can be classified into four different types: ① an Ordos platform with the Proterozoic crust and two high-velocity layers in the northeast section, ② a transitional crust between the northeastern Tibetan plateau and the Ordos block across the Haiyuan earthquake zone, ③ the Qilian orogenic zone in the central part, and 4 the Qinling orogenic zone in the southwestern section. The Moho depth increases from ~42 km to ~62 km from the NE part to the SW part of the profile. The crystalline crust consists of the upper crust and lower crust in northeastern Tibetan plateau. There is an obviously low P-wave velocity layer dipping northeastward, which is 12–13 km thick, at the bottom of the upper crust in Qinling orogenic zone and Haiyuan earthquake zone. The lower crust is characterized by alternating high and low P-wave velocity layers. Beneath Ordos block, i.e., the NE part of the profile, the crust shows quite a smooth increase in P-wave velocity down to the Moho at a depth of about 42 km.     

青藏高原东缘的地壳流及动力过程

黏滞性地壳流对地壳及上地幔变形作用及动力机制,是大陆新生代造山带的一个重要研究内容.青藏高原中下地壳存在部分熔融或含水物质的黏滞性流体,已为一系列地球物理及岩石学研究所证实.为研究青藏高原东缘地壳流的动力作用,本文用密集的被动源宽频带地震台的观测数据,反演了地壳上地幔精细速度结构和泊松比.研究表明,川西及滇西北高原的中地壳内普遍存在低速层,而高泊松比的地壳只分布在川西北地区.位于中地壳的黏滞性地壳流从青藏高原腹地羌塘高原流出,自北西向南东流入青藏高原东缘.这些黏滞性地壳流带动了上地壳块体水平移动,当它们受到刚强的四川盆地及华南地块阻挡时将发生分层作用,地壳流将分为二或更多分支不同方向的分流,向上的一支地壳流将对上地壳产生挤压,引起地面隆升,向下的一支地壳流将使莫霍面下沉加厚下地壳·黏滞性地壳流的运动在地壳中产生应变破裂发生强烈地震活动,地震的空间分布与震源机制也受到地壳流动力作用控制.     

Crustal structure of northeastern Tibetan plateau and Ordos block:Waveform interpretation of the Maqen-Jingbian seismic refraction profile

The Maqen-Jingbian wide-angle seismic reflection and refraction experiment was carried out in 1998,which aims at determining detailed structure in the crust and top of the upper mantle and understanding structural relation between the northeastern Tibetan plateau and the Ordos block. The 1-D crustal models inferred by waveform inversion show strong variations in crustal structure,which can be classified into four different types:1 an Ordos platform with the Proterozoic crust and two high-velocity layers in ...     

Crustal structure of the northeastern Tibetan plateau,the Ordos block and the Sichuan basin from ambient noise tomography

We apply ambient noise tomography to significant seismic data resources in a region including the northeastern Tibetan plateau,the Ordos block and the Sichuan basin.The seismic data come from about 160 stations of the provincial broadband digital seismograph networks of China.Ambient noise cross-correlations are performed on the data recorded between 2007 and 2009 and high quality inter-station Rayleigh phase velocity dispersion curves are obtained between periods of 6 s to 35 s.Resulting Rayleigh wave phase velocity maps possess a lateral resolution between 100 km and 200 km.The phase velocities at short periods (20 s) are lower in the Sichuan basin,the northwest segment of the Ordos block and the Weihe graben,and outline sedimentary deposits.At intermediate and long periods (25 s),strong high velocity anomalies are observed within the Ordos block and the Sichuan basin and low phase velocities are imaged in the northeastern Tibetan plateau,reflecting the variation of crustal thickness from the Tibetan plateau to the neighboring regions in the east.Crustal and uppermost mantle shear wave velocities vary strongly between the Tibetan plateau,the Sichuan basin and the Ordos block.The Ordos block and the Sichuan basin are dominated by high shear wave velocities in the crust and uppermost mantle.There is a triangle-shaped low velocity zone located in the northeastern Tibetan plateau,whose width narrows towards the eastern margin of the plateau.No low velocity zone is apparent beneath the Qinling orogen,suggesting that mass may not be able to flow eastward through the boundary between the Ordos block and the Sichuan basin in the crust and uppermost mantle.     

藏北高原地震活动性特征及其大地构造意义

藏北高原自新生代以来不仅发生了强烈的火山作用,而且现今的地震活动性仍然强烈.本文收集了2011年前藏北高原区发生的地震事件(源自NEIC)及相应的震源机制解数据(源自GCMT),结合地质与地球物理等相关资料,初步分析表明藏北高原地壳整体上处于伸展应力状态.然而,因区域构造应力场及构造环境差异,将藏北高原地震活动区分为两个地震活动区,即西昆仑地震活动区和藏北中部火山岩区.西昆仑区的地壳应力状态呈东西向伸展,而岩石圈地幔部分主要以南北汇聚为主,表明西昆仑区域下的地壳与岩石圈地幔应力状态是解耦的,而这种解耦机制需要更进一步的研究.而在藏北中部火山岩区的地壳的主张应力场为NNE-SSW的走滑和正断层性质的伸展,尽管缺乏该区域下的岩石圈结构特征认识,但是依据幔源性质的钾质和超钾质火山岩成因模式,认为其下的岩石圈地幔也处于伸展状态,该区域下的地壳与岩石圈地幔同处于伸展应力环境中,表明藏北火山岩区下的结构特征更加复杂,亟待开展相关探测与研究.     

巴颜喀拉块体地壳结构多样性探测

青藏高原内部地壳岩性的改造、岩性随深度变化及形变构造是探索研究地壳增厚、物质运动问题的关键.巴颜喀拉块体位于青藏高原中北部,地域广袤,通过对块体内中、东部不同区域的深地震广角反射/折射震相的综合分析,利用反射率理论地震图方法对不同性质震相走时及振幅特征进行细致的模拟计算,进一步研究巴颜喀拉块体内部不同区域地壳精细结构.结果显示:巴颜喀拉块体地壳厚度50~60 km、整体向西逐渐增厚,结晶地壳平均速度6.07~6.18 km·s~(-1)、岩层速度大幅降低,壳内多强反射界面结构、但不同区域差异明显;东部若尔盖盆地地壳介质速度整体低速、壳幔边界较为清晰;中部玉树一玛多段下部地壳发现约6.8 km·s~(-1)的"高速度"介质结构,壳幔边界不清、被改造为2~4 km厚的高速度梯度层,显示了巴颜喀拉块体内部地壳增厚、介质岩性结构被改造的差异性.地壳内部多组强反射、低视速度走时震相揭示了介质岩性的低速破碎、弱化蠕变以及可能的壳内解耦构造.局部地区下地壳的高视速度震相特征显示了青藏高原地壳改造增厚大背景下可能存在稳定的"原始地壳"结构残留或是与上地幔物质的浸入交流.巴颜喀拉块体内不同区域地壳增厚、岩性结构、结晶基底及壳幔边界性质被改造的多样性为深入认识青藏高原地壳形变及动力学过程带来新的启迪.     

青藏高原东北缘地壳地震各向异性研究进展

青藏高原东北缘是青藏块体与华北块体的接触前缘部位,是研究青藏高原隆升扩张和深部动力学问题的重要区域。本文收集了青藏高原东北缘及其邻区由不同方法和不同资料获得的地壳地震各向异性结果,介绍了中上地壳和全地壳各向异性特征;结合区域地质构造、地表运动、构造应力和深部结构,分析了研究区域地壳各向异性的区域分布特征及其与地质构造的关系。结果表明,青藏高原东北缘地震各向异性存在明显的横向区域差异性,体现区域深部构造和地壳介质变形的复杂性;上地壳与全地壳的垂向差异性,反映出该区域可能存在各向异性分层现象。由于青藏高原隆升在其东北缘的伸展边界、物质运移及深部动力模式等尚处在探讨之中,结合多种数据并综合多种方法分析,有助于获得精细、准确的地震各向异性信息,为研究青藏高原隆升演化机制和深部动力模式提供有效的约束。     

利用双差成像方法反演青藏高原东北缘及其邻区地壳速度结构

利用区域尺度双差层析成像方法,使用2009年1月至2017年2月的近震资料,对青藏高原东北缘及其邻区内记录到的地震事件进行震源位置和三维速度结构的联合反演.重新定位后震源空间位置得到明显改善,浅层的地震波速与地形和沉积层厚度对应较好,研究区地震主要发生在河西走廊过渡带的低泊松比区域.本文将研究区分为五个区域并分别对其层析成像结果进行了讨论,结果显示研究区不同地块之间地壳结构变化明显,地壳物质整体呈酸性,青藏高原东北缘地壳增厚可能主要发生在中下地壳.     

滇西地区地壳速度结构及其构造意义

使用2011年8月至2012年8月在南北地震带南段布设的密集流动地震台站记录的波形数据,采用绝对定位方法对滇西地区的1593个地震进行了初步定位,应用近震走时层析成像方法获得了滇西地区三维地壳P波速度结构。研究结果表明,攀枝花附近的高速异常从地表可一直延伸至中地壳,并在中下地壳深度与滇西北地区的高速异常形成大范围的高速块体。这一高速异常体对青藏高原物质向南逃逸起到一定的阻挡作用,可能是导致川滇活动块体北部次级块体快速抬升的重要因素。位于印度板块与欧亚板块俯冲边界的腾冲、保山地块在下地壳表现为明显的大范围低速异常,推测该低速异常与印度板块东向俯冲引起的地幔热物质上涌有关。金沙江-红河断裂带是川滇块体重要的南部边界,红河断裂带中段的弥渡至红河一带具有高速的地壳结构以及较弱的地震活动性,可能表明该区现阶段处于闭锁状态,是未来需要重点监测的地段之一。     

基于地壳介质各向异性分析青藏高原东北缘构造应力特征

青藏高原东北缘由于受到多个构造块体的共同约束,表现出复杂的地球物理特性和地质特性,本文利用甘肃数字地震台网(2001-2008年)的观测资料,采用系统分析方法(SAM),进行地壳剪切波分裂分析,获得研究区内18个台站共1005条记录的剪切波分裂参数.研究结果表明,青藏高原东北缘介质各向异性在空间上存在差异,慢剪切波延迟时间表明了地壳介质各向异性的强弱变化特征,快剪切波平均偏振方向则反映了本区区域构造应力的空间变化特征.分析认为,祁连山-河西走廊活动构造区直接受青藏地块与阿拉善地块间相互作用,与青藏地块构造应力一致;甘东南活动构造区的应力环境主要受到内部活动断裂的共同作用,具有局部构造应力的特征.     

六盘山断裂带及其邻区地壳结构

新生代期间,中国大陆西部受印度一欧亚板块碰撞和青藏高原隆升影响,以地壳缩短、增厚、陆内造山和强烈地震活动等为主要特征.在青藏高原东北边缘,高原物质侧向移动被鄂尔多斯地块所阻,在六盘山地区发育了一系列左旋斜冲断裂.断裂带周缘构造变形强烈,地震活动频繁,是研究青藏高原横向扩展控制大陆内部弥散变形的理想场所.本文对穿越青藏高原东北缘一六盘山断裂带一鄂尔多斯地块的宽角反射与折射地震资料使用层析成像和射线反演算法进行成像,获得了研究区地壳速度结构模型,其结果反映出六盘山断裂带两侧地壳结构、构造特征差异显著:1)上地壳层析成像结果显示鄂尔多斯盆地一侧地壳上部速度较低,等值线呈近水平状,具有典型的沉积盆地特征,而青藏高原东北缘一侧上地壳速度相对较高,横向变化剧烈,呈褶皱状,二者的分界为海原一六盘山逆冲走滑断裂;2)全地壳射线反演结果显示鄂尔多斯地块地壳速度梯度大,下地壳底部速度高由铁镁质物质组成,具有典型稳定古老克拉通的特征,青藏高原东北缘地壳速度总体较低,主要由长英质及长英-铁镁质过渡物质组成,具有典型造山带的特征,而六盘山断裂带下方地壳速度结构复杂,层面呈拱形,部分层出现速度逆转,为两个构造单元的接触过渡带;3)青藏高原东北缘一侧地壳厚度~50 km,鄂尔多斯地块地壳厚度~42 km,六盘山断裂带下方莫霍面发生叠置,揭示出青藏高原东北缘、鄂尔多斯地壳在六盘山下汇聚,较薄且刚性的鄂尔多斯地壳挤入较厚且塑性的青藏高原东北缘地壳中的构造模式.     

S-wave crustal and upper mantle’s velocity structure in the eastern Tibetan Plateau — Deep environment of lower crustal flow

A teleseismic profile consisting of 26 stations was deployed along 30°N latitude in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. By use of the inversion of P-wave receiver function, the S-wave velocity structures at depth from surface to 80 km beneath the profile have been determined. The inversion results reveal that there is significant lateral variation of the crustal structure between the tectonic blocks on the profile. From Linzhi north of the eastern Himalayan Syntaxis, the crust is gradually thickened in NE direction; the crustal thickness reaches to the maximum value (∼72 km) at the Bangong-Nujiang suture, and then decreased to 65 km in the Qiangtang block, to 57–64 km in the Bayan Har block, and to 40–45 km in the Sichuan Basin. The eastern segment of the teleseismic profile (to the east of Batang) coincides geographically with the Zhubalong-Zizhong deep seismic sounding profile carried out in 2000, and the S-wave velocity structure determined from receiver functions is consistent with the P-wave velocity structure obtained by deep seismic sounding in respect of the depths of Moho and major crustal interfaces. In the Qiangtang and the Bayan Har blocks, the lower velocity layer is widespread in the lower crust (at depth of 30–60 km) along the profile, while there is a normal velocity distribution in lower crust in the Sichuan Basin. On an average, the crustal velocity ratio (Poisson ratio) in tectonic blocks on the profile is 1.73 (σ = 0.247) in the Lhasa block, 1.78 (σ = 0.269) in the Banggong-Nujiang suture, 1.80 (σ = 0.275) in the Qiangtang block, 1.86 (σ = 0.294) in the Bayan Har blocks, and 1.77 (σ = 0.265) in the Yangtze block, respectively. The Qiangtang and the Bayan Har blocks are characterized by lower S-wave velocity anomaly in lower crust, complicated Moho transition, and higher crustal Poisson ratio, indicating that there is a hot and weak medium in lower crust. These are considered as the deep environment of lower crustal flow in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Flowage of the ductile material in lower crust may be attributable to the variation of the gravitational potential energy in upper crust from higher on the plateau to lower off plateau. Supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants No. 40334041 and 40774037) and the International Cooperation Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (Grant No. 2003DF000011)     

200-kg large explosive detonation facing 50-km thick crust beneath west Qinling,northeastern Tibetan plateau

It is difficult to acquire deep seismic reflection profiles on land using the standard oil-industry acquisition parameters. This is especially true over much of Tibetan plateau not only because of severe topography and rapid variation of both velocity and thickness of near-surface layer, but also strong attenuation of seismic wave through the thickest crust of the Earth. Large explosive sources had been successfully detonated in US, but its application in Tibetan plateau rarely has an example of good quality. Presented herein is the data of a 200-kg single shot we recorded in west Qinling, northeastern Tibetan plateau. The shot gather data with phenomenal signal-to-noise ratios illustrate the energy of the PmP phase. Although the observations are only limited to the northeastern Tibetan plateau and thus cannot comprise an exhaustive study, they nevertheless suggest that large explosions may be a useful exploration tool in Tibetan Plateau where standard seismic sources and profiling methods fail to produce adequate data of low crust.     

青藏高原下地壳流动方式的数值模拟研究

青藏高原存在柔性下地壳流动被越来越多的学者接受, 但是关于下地壳流动方式及速度存在争议。 地表运动有GPS等直接测量, 上地幔运动有S波分裂间接反映, 下地壳运动目前没有直接观测手段, 使得开展数值分析非常重要。 本文利用三维球壳黏弹性有限元模型研究了青藏高原下地壳柔性流动方式和流动速度。 本文通过对地表GPS观测资料的拟合与不同数值模型的对比分析, 认为青藏高原柔性下地壳东向流动遇到四川盆地的抵阻, 下地壳物质可能仅在高原东南方向存在物质外溢通道, 而在高原东北方向不存在类似的物质通道; 下地壳的流动速度比地表运动速率每年快几毫米至十几毫米, 对应的黏滞系数为10¹⁸~10¹⁹ Pa·s。     

青藏高原东南缘地壳结构与变形机制研究进展

新生代青藏高原的隆升改变了整个亚洲的构造格局,对气候、环境均产生了重要的影响,但高原的隆升扩展机制众说纷纭.青藏高原东南缘作为扩展前缘,其构造演化对了解整个高原的扩展机制具有重要的意义.本文总结了近年来对青藏高原东南缘地壳结构研究的最新进展,特别是2011年中国地震科学探测台阵计划开展以来,利用密集地震台阵取得的新成果,探讨了青藏高原东南缘地壳的结构与变形机制.这些研究发现青藏高原的地壳由高原向外围减薄,但在高原边界断裂附近存在地壳厚度突变带;下地壳中存在两个独立的低速异常,一个位于松潘—甘孜块体下方,被高原的边界断裂所围限,另一个位于小江断裂带下方,呈NE-SW向展布.我们认为青藏高原东南缘下地壳物质被边界(丽江—小金河)断裂所围限,并没有继续向边缘流出,但是地壳挤出产生的应力作用继续向东南方向传递,造成了小江断裂带附近的地壳变形.     

Receiver function analysis for seismic structure of the crust and uppermost mantle in the Liupanshan area, China

A portable broadband seismic array was deployed from the northeast Tibetan Plateau to the southwest Ordos block, China. The seismic structure of the crust and uppermost mantle of the Liupanshan area is obtained using receiver function analysis of teleseismic body waves. The crustal thickness and Poisson's ratios are estimated by stacking the weighted amplitudes of receiver functions. Our results reveal complex seismic phases in the Liupanshan area, implying intense deformation at the boundary between the Tibetan Plateau and the Ordos block. The average crustal thickness is 51.5 km in the northeast Tibetan Plateau, 53.5 km in the Liupan Mountain and 50 km in the southwest Ordos block, resulting in a concave Moho beneath the Liupan Mountain. The Poisson's ratio of the Liupanshan area varies between 0.27-0.29, higher than the value of 0.25-0.26 to the east and west of the Liupan Mountain, suggesting partial melting in the lower crust. The variance in Poisson's ratio across the Liupan Mountain indicates notable changes in the crustal composition and mechanical properties, which may be formed by the northeastward flow of the Tibetan lower crust during the India-Eurasia collision.     

利用接收函数反演青藏高原西部地壳S波速度结构

相对于宽阔的腹地,青藏高原西部南北向宽度仅约600km,却记录了印度和欧亚板块汇聚的深部过程及其响应.本文用22台宽频带流动地震台站在西缘构建了一条南北向探测剖面(~80°E,TW-80试验).利用接收函数反演剖面下方S波速度结构,综合西部已有的宽频带探测结果,分析认为:印度板块向北俯冲可能已到达班公湖—怒江缝合带附近,俯冲过程中下地壳发生榴辉岩化;喀拉昆仑断裂带、班公湖—怒江缝合带、阿尔金断裂带均为切穿地壳的深断裂,莫霍面发生错断;喀拉昆仑断裂带和龙木错断裂带之间的中上地壳没有发现连续的S波低速体,说明可能缺乏解耦层,支持青藏高原西部地壳为整体缩短增厚模式.     

青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔电性结构研究进展

经过数十年的努力,中国学者针对青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔探测,累积完成超过20000 km的大地电磁测深剖面,取得了一系列重要科学数据和认识,为青藏高原东缘构造格局、地壳上地幔电性结构、地震机制和动力学研究奠定了基础.根据青藏高原东缘的主要构造和断裂分布特征,本文重点对龙门山构造带、川滇构造带和三江构造带三个构造带分区进行研究,主要依据大地电磁探测工作成果和壳幔电性结构特征,系统地对青藏高原东缘地壳上地幔电性结构、与扬子西缘接触关系、汶川地震和芦山地震的电性孕震环境及弱物质流通道等几个方面进行了梳理和分析.一是青藏高原东缘地壳表层岩块和物质沿壳内高导层向龙门山造山带仰冲推覆,表现为逆冲推覆特征的薄皮构造;二是高原东部地壳中下部及上地幔顶部向龙门山造山带和上扬子地块西缘岩石圈深部俯冲,呈现刚性的上扬子地块西缘高阻楔形体向西插入柔性青藏块体的楔形构造;三是将汶川地震和芦山地震的震源投影到大地电磁剖面上,发现震源位于剖面下方的高阻块体与低阻体之间靠近高阻体的一侧,龙门山构造带岩石圈表现出高阻、高密度和高速的"三高"特征,这种非均匀电性结构可能构成地震孕育发生条件;四是川滇和三江地区的多条大地电磁剖面探测结果表明,在青藏高原东缘中下地壳存在下地壳流和局部管道流,大地电磁结果对其空间分布形态、位置及大小进行了较好的刻画.根据研究区壳幔电性结构特征的构造解析和综合实例分析,总结了青藏高原东缘六类壳幔电性结构模型,提出了下一步重点研究领域和目标.总之,青藏高原东缘壳幔电性结构的研究对揭示研究区岩石圈结构和构造格局提供了重要依据,对油气及矿产资源远景评价提供了背景资料,对"Y"型多地震区的构造关系和发震机理研究具有重要指导意义.     

Contemporary crustal deformation of the Chinese continent and tectonic block model

We obtain the preliminary result of crustal deformation velocity field for the Chinese con-tinent by analyzing GPS data from the Crustal Motion Observation Network of China (CMONOC), particularly the data from the regional networks of CMONOC observed in 1999 and 2001. We de-lineate 9 tectonically active blocks and 2 broadly distributed deformation zones out of a denseGPS velocity field, and derive block motion Euler poles for the blocks and their relative motionrates. Our result reveals that there are 3 categories of deformation patterns in the Chinese conti-nent. The first category, associated with the interior of the Tibetan Plateau and the Tianshan oro-genic belt, shows broadly distributed deformation within the regions. The third category, associatedwith the Tarim Basin and the region east of the north-south seismic belt of China, shows block-likemotion, with deformation accommodated along the block boundaries only. The second category, mainly associated with the borderland of the Tibetan Plateau, such as the Qaidam, Qilian, Xining(in eastern Qinghai), and the Diamond-shaped (in western Sichuan and Yunnan) blocks, has thedeformation pattern between the first and the third, i.e. these regions appear to deform block-like,but with smaller sizes and less strength for the blocks. Based on the analysis of the lithosphericstructures and the deformation patterns of the regions above, we come to the inference that thedeformation modes of the Chinese continental crust are mainly controlled by the crustal structure.The crust of the eastern China and the Tarim Basin is mechanically strong, and its deformationtakes the form of relative motion between rigid blocks. On the other hand, the northward indentation of the Indian plate into the Asia continent has created the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and the Tianshan Mountains, thickened their crust, and raised the temperature in the crust. The lower crust thus has become ductile, evidenced in low seismic velocity and high electric conductivity observed. The brittle part of the crust, driven by the visco-plastic flow of the lower crust, deforms extensively at all scales. The regions of the second category located at the borderland of the Tibetan Plateau are at the transition zone between the regions of the first and the third categories in terms of the crustal structure. Driven by the lateral boundary forces, their deformation style is also between the two, in the form of block motion and deformation with smaller blocks and less internal strength.