The urban geography of underdevelopment: a case of petty commodity production

The study in urban geography of underdevelopment has serious inadequacies although there are numerous studies on unemployment, housing, transportation and poverty problems of the city in underdeveloped societies. Urban petty commodity production (a group of activities normally seen as lying outside the principal spheres of large-scale production in underdeveloped economies), for example, has been the focus of development economics and geography in the last two decades but the specific problem of appropriation of urban landscape by this group of activities, which in turn reproduce and transform the landscape has, at the very best, been only partially and indirectly addressed. This paper deals with this problem with particular reference to material derived from fieldwork in the Turkish city of Bursa.     

From back-analysis to run-out prediction: a case study in the Western Italian Alps

Rock avalanches are complex phenomena that occur with a low frequency but which have a high destructive potential. As a consequence, the people who are responsible for the management of a territory are more and more interested in predicting the possible evolutions of well-known potential events. Tackling the above problems from a quantitative point of view, the RASH3D code, based on continuum mechanics concepts, has been here used to predict the evolution of a potential rock avalanche in the Western Italian Alps. A calibration-based approach, in which rheological parameters are constrained by systematic adjustment during trial-and-error back-analysis of past events similar to the landslide under investigation, is proposed to set rheological parameter values to be used for prediction purposes. The back-analysis of a 2?10⁶ m³ rock avalanche located in the Divedro Valley, close to the area of the potential event, has then been analysed using both a frictional and a Voellmy rheology. The characteristics of the slope and the dynamics of the event have made the frictional rheology more suitable to come to the correct simulation of the historical case. The back-analysis results have contributed not only in the selection of the rheological parameter values but also in the choice of the type of rheological law to use in the carried out forward-analyses.     

从同位素年代学到构造年代学

从同位素年代学发展到构造年代学,中间必须经历热年代学、构造-热年代学、变形年代学等阶段。同位素年代学只是提供简单的地质事件年龄,热年代学同时赋予了地质事件温度和年龄信息,而构造年代学则强调地质或构造过程中时间-空间的四维演化过程。构造年代学使年龄数据的科学意义除了时间外,还有温度、地壳深度变化、是否有流体参与等多重意义,它涉及到多维空间的变化：时间、温度、水平方向的二维变形、垂直方向的变形等。在现有技术和认知水平的条件下,强调指出了从变形年代学到构造年代学的发展中要注意的一些关键问题,而回归传统地质、以野外变形为基础的变形年代学研究是构造年代学发展的前提。     

Using routine activity theory to inform a conceptual understanding of the geography of fire events

The cost of fire events can be devastating in human, emotional and financial terms. There is a growing realisation that geographical techniques can be used in cross-disciplinary approaches to gain an understanding of potential causation factors associated with such events. Despite this, the theoretical frameworks within which such research efforts are often couched have received relatively scant attention. Contrast this with literature concerned with the geography of crime where the application of routine activity theory in particular has been to the fore in studies concerned with providing a sound conceptual basis to understanding spatial and temporal analysis of crime events. This paper demonstrates the application of routine activity theory to understand the geography of fire events and identify ignition situations incited through behavioural regularities. Further, the paper illustrates the practical utility of routine activity theory and its extensions for designing targeted fire prevention, mitigation and response strategies.     

Review: From multi-scale conceptualization to a classification system for inland groundwater-dependent ecosystems

Aquifers provide water, nutrients and energy with various patterns for many aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs) are increasingly recognized for their ecological and socio-economic values. The current knowledge of the processes governing the ecohydrological functioning of inland GDEs is reviewed, in order to assess the key drivers constraining their viability. These processes occur both at the watershed and emergence scale. Recharge patterns, geomorphology, internal geometry and geochemistry of aquifers control water availability and nutritive status of groundwater. The interface structure between the groundwater system and the biocenoses may modify the groundwater features by physicochemical or biological processes, for which biocenoses need to adapt. Four major types of aquifer-GDE interface have been described: springs, surface waters, peatlands and terrestrial ecosystems. The ecological roles of groundwater are conditioned by morphological characteristics for spring GDEs, by the hyporheic zone structure for surface waters, by the organic soil structure and volume for peatland GDEs, and by water-table fluctuation and surface floods in terrestrial GDEs. Based on these considerations, an ecohydrological classification system for GDEs is proposed and applied to Central and Western-Central Europe, as a basis for modeling approaches for GDEs and as a tool for groundwater and landscape management.     

From Basin Black Shales to Platform Carbonate Rocks： A Study on Sequence Stratigraphy for the Lower Cambrian of the Upper-Yangtze Region in South China

In the Upper-Yangtze region,especially in Guizhou Province and its adjacent areas,the Lower Cambrian is well developed and is marked by a succession from black shales of the basin facies to carbonate rocks of the platform facies.The drowning event of the platform occurring at the turn from Sinian to Cambrian resulted in a set of black shales,i.e.the Niutitang Formation,which makes up the bottom part of the Lower Cambrian.With the shoaling of the sedimentary environment,a set of carbonate rocks,i.e.the Qingxudong Formation,was formed in the top part of the Lower Cambrian.Thus,the Lower Cambrian in the study area makes up one second-order sequence that can be further subdivided into five third-order sequences,and forms a regularly cyclic succession of transgression-regression.There is a regularly vertical stacking pattern for the third-order sequences in the second-order sequence.From bottom to top,the succession of the"CS(condensed section) HST(high-stand system tract)"of the third-order sequences is changed into the succession of the"TST(transgressive system tract) CS HST".Correspondingly,the drowning-type sequence boundary is changed into the exposure-type one.Therefore,both the second-order and the third-order sequences have similar sedimentary-facies architectures.A concomitant with these temporal changes, the Lower Cambrian with a thickness of 1000m that contains five third-order sequences is changed into a condensed succession that cannot identify third-order sequences toward the southeast with the deepening of the sedimentary environment.According to the elementary features of the third-order sequences,i.e.the regularity o sedimentary-facies successions in space and the synchronism of sedimentary-environment changes in time,the detailed division of the third-order sequences at main logged sections in different paleogeographical background becomes the basis to establish the sequence-stratigraphic framework that can demonstrate two types of facies-changing surface and two types of diachronism in the stratigraphic records.This sequence-stratigraphic framework shows a growing process of the carbonate platform from the base of the condensed succession formed by black shales of basin facies.Resulting from the rapid transgression at the turn from Sinian to Cambrian the ecological space became open,which formed the antecedent condition of paleogeographical setting for"the Cambrian Biological Explosion".Ultimately,the genetic relationship between the depositional events and the biological-diversity events is very complex and there remain lots of problems that need further research in the future.     

From food security to food insecurity: The case of Iraq, 1990–91

The article explains Iraq's precipitous decline into food insecurity following its military invasion of Kuwait. Food security and insecurity are defined and then examined in the Iraqi context. Five vulnerabilities are identified that were activated by international retaliation against Iraq, including the UN Security Council's embargo on trade between Iraq and the rest of the world and the Gulf War itself. The emergence and intensification of food insecurity are analyzed step by step, followed by consideration of how food security might be restored in Iraq. An Appendix assesses whether Iraq experienced famine in 1991.     

地球化学探测:从纳米到全球

文中简要总结了勘查地球化学的发展历程,阐述了从纳米尺度到全球尺度地球化学探测的最新进展。勘查地球化学从诞生初期研究手标本化学成分,到研究矿床尺度原生晕,到20世纪70年代以后研究化学元素的区域分布,到90年代以后开始研究全球尺度化学元素分布。进入2000年以后,为了更深层次理解这些宏观地球化学模式是如何受元素的微观行为控制的,开始了纳米尺度地球化学探测。目前纳米尺度地球化学和全球尺度地球化学研究成为地球化学探测的两个前沿研究领域。笔者从微观、区域和全球不同尺度地球化学探测,各列举一个前缘领域进行了介绍。(1)在微观尺度上,从纳米水平研究化学元素的存在行为、分散和迁移机理,列举了有关纳米铜和纳米金晶体颗粒的发现及其对隐伏矿勘查的意义;(2)在区域尺度上,阐述了盆地砂岩型铀矿地球化学调查理论与技术进展;(3)在全球尺度上,列举了全球地球化学基准研究的最新进展,初步总结了全球尺度化学元素分布与地质背景、矿产资源、气候变化和人类活动的关系。     

Another Approach to the Mode of a Skewed Set of Data: the Plot Method*

A method which consists essentially in ranking and then plotting on rectangular coordinates the data of a skewed set of results to the purpose of identifying the modal value of the set, is described. The method is simple, fast (if a plotter is used) and requires no calculations.     

From bifurcation to failure in a granular material: a DEM analysis

The question of diffuse failure in granular media such as soils is treated by numerical modelling with a discrete element model. Two numerical samples are considered, one dense and the other loose. A criterion based on the sign of the second-order work is applied to the numerical model to detect bifurcation points related to diffuse failure. The notions of loss of controllability and loss of sustainability are taken into account to simulate diffuse failure at bifurcation points detected. Therefore, the failures predicted based on the second-order work criterion are numerically verified.     

The (ir)relevance of geography for school choice: Evidence from a Swedish choice experiment

The increased opportunity to choose one’s school of preference has been raised as a key factor in many countries to promote equal opportunities and a higher quality of education. This has been endorsed by policymakers who assume that students make well-informed rational choices and that students stress only academic quality when deciding which school to attend. If this is true, it will benefit schools of high academic quality, rendering improved school quality overall. To date, little research has examined the validity of these assumptions despite the profound effects they have had for changing the school systems in many countries. This article describes an experiment to investigate the relative importance of factors in school choice. The aim is to test the validity of the theoretical assumptions that guided the school choice reforms in Sweden. Specifically, we draw on experimental data from prospective upper secondary school students in Sweden to contrast the principal school quality attributes behind the policy change (knowledge reputation and program feasibility), with the presence of friends and geographical attributes such as distance, location and accessibility, while controlling for individual characteristics. The results have important policy implications as they show that geographical factors are highly relevant for school choice preferences. In contrast to the reforms’ intentions, geography appears to have become more important than ever before. The findings thus reveal significant flaws in the assumptions that motivated the school choice policy reform.     

The Hesperian Massif: From Iapetus aulacogen to ensialic orogen a model for its development

The mantle plume/rift system model developed by three of the present authors (v. C., d. T., K.) for the northern Hesperian Massif is expanded to that of an aulacogen/ensialic orogen for the entire massif. The first author (v. d. M. M.) contributes a review of the supracrustal history of the massif and its predrift adjacent areas, summarized in a time-stratigraphic table of the Cambro-Ordovician and a palinspastic-palaeogeographic sketch map of the general region in Middle Cambrian times. The infrastructural history is also reviewed, and it is concluded that the early Palaeozoic features of the Massif are consistent with those of an aulacogen oriented at a high angle to the Iapetus ocean. In the Late Palaeozoic its features changed into those of an ensialic orogen without appreciable loss of continuity as shown by the facies- and age record of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic events.

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Zusammenfassung Das Graben-Mantelkissen-Modell, welches für das nördliche Hesperische Massiv von drei der Autoren (v. C., d. T., K.) entwickelt wurde, wird zu dem eines aulacogenen ensialischen Orogens für das ganze Massiv weiterentwickelt. Der erste Autor (v. d. M. M.) liefert eine Übersicht der suprakrustalen Entwicklungsgeschichte des Massivs und seiner Umrandung vor der Driftung, zusammengefaßt in einer stratigraphischen Tabelle des Kambro-Ordoviziums und in einer palinspastisch-paleogeographischen Skizze der Region während des Mittelkambriums.Die infrastrukturale Entwicklungsgeschichte wird ebenfalls beleuchtet, und es wird daraus geschlossen, daß die frühpaläozoischen Konfigurationen des Massivs mit denen eines Aulacogens übereinstimmen, unter Einschluß eines großen Winkels mit dem Iapetus Ozean. Im Jungpaläozoikum veränderten sich die Charakteristika zu denen eines ensialischen Orogens, ohne daß, im weiteren Verlauf der Erdgeschichte, dieser Prozeß unterbrochen wurde, wie sedimentäre Fazies, Altersdatierungen und kristalline und metamorphe Entwicklung dokumentieren.

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Résumé Le modèle d'un panache mantélique avec son système de rift, développé par les trois derniers auteurs pour le Massif Hespérique septentrional, est étendu à un modèle d'aulacogène/orogène ensialique pour le massif entier. Le premier auteur y contribue par un aperçu de l'histoire supracrustale du massif et de ses régions limitrophes avant l'ouverture du présent Océan Atlantique. Cette histoire est résumée dans un tableau chronostratigraphique et exprimée dans un croquis palinspastique/paléogéographique de la région circum-Hespérique à l'époque du Cambrien Moyen. L'histoire infracrustale est passée également en revue. On en conclut que les traits caractéristiques du massif pendant le Paléozoique inférieur correspondent avec ceux d'un aulacogène orienté quasi-perpendiculairement à l'Océan proto-Atlantique, dit Iapetus. Au Paléozoique supérieur ces traits se sont transformés de façon à ressembler à ceux d'un orogène ensialique sans perdre sa continuité, ce que montre l'étalement ininterrompu, dans le temps comme dans l'espace, des événements sédimentaires, ignés et métamorphiques.

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U.S. Economic strategies against Western Europe: From Nixon to Reagan

This paper seeks to examine the destabilizing role of the U.S. in international monetary affairs by charting the changing economic and monetary policies of successive U.S. administrations. It suggests that U.S. economic policy since the beginning of the 1970s can only be explained as a reaction to the relative decline of the U.S. economy vis-à-vis Western Europe and Japan. To ward off this decline the U.S. has pursued unilateral policies of dollar devaluation and revaluation which have often worked to the disadvantage of its rivals and the Third World. In detail, this paper examines the nature and consequences of a dollar devaluation policy under Nixon and Carter, of the strong dollar policy of the first Reagan administration, and of the renewed devaluation policies of Reagan's second administration. This paper shows how these policies have evolved against a background of deepening international crisis (and with reference to U.S. geopolitical strategies and the sanction of protectionism). Lessons are drawn for the European Left and future scenarios are mapped out concerning possible geographical alignments at the turn of the century. This paper places the debt crisis in the wider context of an asymmetrical and dysfunctional economic and monetary order.     

From St. John's to Miami: Containerisation at Eastern Seaboard Ports

The North American Eastern Seaboard is one of the major container handling regions of the world. However, since 1975 it has declined relative to the world development of containerisation. Whereas in 1975, 20.4% of the world's containers passed through Eastern Seaboard ports, in 1995 the figure was 7.2%. In the period 1975 to 1995, ports in Canada and the Mid Atlantic range have held their own relatively in the proportion of containers handled in the Eastern Seaboard. Ports in the North East, primarily New York, have lost ground; ports in the South have gained. Rank size analysis and the Gini coefficient show a deconcentration of container handling away from New York to middle ranked ports, especially Hampton Roads, Charleston, SC and Montreal. Global factors – universal adoption of containerisation, changing trade routes brought about by post-Panamax ships and intermodality, and cargo sharing among alliances – explain the relative decline of the Eastern Seaboard ports as a group. Individual port development is largely accounted for by how well ports respond to the global factors. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Lithification of some modern carbonate sediments in a hypersaline lake adjacent to the Black Sea

In the hypersaline Techirghiol Lake adjacent to the Black Sea, sporadically formed lithified blocks and grapestone are found which are the result of cementation of carbonate sediments with aragonite and possibly kutnahorite (manganesian calcite). The lithified blocks are characterized by a central cavity bordered by a lithified envelope. The formation of the carbonate cement is due to subaquatic bacterial processes of calcium sulfate reduction and the synthesis of calcium carbonate at the expense of gypsum concretions derived from Pleistocene red clays cropping out along the shore of the lake. These lithified blocks have geological significance as they may be usable as criteria for the recognition of sediments deposited in the past near to the shores of hypersaline lakes.     

复式滑坡灾害防治工程剖析--国道108线广元南段某滑坡防治工程实例

论文以国道108线广（元）南段某特大型滑坡为例，介绍该复式滑坡的形态结构特征、成因机制，阐述了滑坡极体内Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ级滑面（带）特征，分析了该滑坡前期工程治理失败的原因。针对该滑坡体内多级滑面（带）的形成特点及结构特征，提出了以重力式挡墙支护浅、表层滑体，抗滑桩锚固深层滑体，滑体后缘高陡边坡采用锚杆支护等，并结合后缘地表排水、前缘利用泄水孔排泄地下水及土工织物护岩防冲刷等综合防治措施，提高了滑坡的稳定性，确保了工程顺利进行，不仅保证了工程质量，而且缩短了工期，节约了治理费用。