Block and Debris Deposits in the High Drakensberg, Lesotho, Southern Africa: Implications for High Altitude Slope Processes

Past evaluation of high altitude slope development in Lesotho, southern Africa, is largely based on hypothetical or macro-scale geomorphic approaches. Consequently, the information pertaining to high altitude southern African Quaternary slope environments has remained rather rudimentary. The present study describes the morphology and discusses the likely palaeogeomorphic processes of blockstreams and debris deposits on the Popple Peak and Njesuthi-Mafadi south-facing-slopes in the Drakensberg. The geomorphic evidence provides much needed information to help improve the understanding of south-facing slope processes during past colder periods. A model for high altitude Drakensberg south facing slopes is presented and used to challenge and expand on recent models and ideas on southern African valley asymmetry. It is found that solifluction and debris flows/avalanches were operative on south-facing slopes during past cold periods and thereby contributed to past slope development at some high altitude sites in Lesotho. However, the geomorphological observations do not support the valley asymmetry hypothesis and it is suggested that greater caution be exercised in valley-form interpretations, particularly where geomorphological ground-truthing has been absent.     

Controls on basalt terrace formation in the eastern Lesotho highlands

The objective of this study is to ascertain the relative importance of lithological controls and geomorphological processes in the development of Drakensberg basalt terraces. Various hypotheses for terrace formation are considered, including geological controls, macroscale geomorphology, and climatic–geomorphological controls. The variations in strength and relative age differences for scarp surface exposures on two slopes of varying aspect are determined, so that a comparison can be made between various scarp outcrops and relative rates of weathering. Scarp outcrops were measured for their rock mass strength, rock surface roughness, and percentage lichen cover. The ethylene glycol test was performed on prepared rock samples to determine susceptibility to tensional breakup. A satellite image depicting the distribution of late-lying contemporary snow was used to assist in the construction of topo-climatic linkages with scarp terrace localities. Findings show that terraces are most common on southeast-facing aspects, and coincide with the major joint strike direction. Lithological factors are thus considered the primary control to such terrace development. It is suggested that a different set of geomorphological processes operates on various slope-altitudinal and slope-orientational positions at any given time.     

ROCK-SURFACE TEMPERATURES OF BASALT IN THE DRAKENSBERG ALPINE ENVIRONMENT, LESOTHO

Rock temperature data are presented for a variety of topographic localities at a high Drakensberg site. The objective is to investigate the spatiotemporal variations of surface rock temperatures in high Drakensberg basalt. The temperature results are then used to discuss possible implications for thermal stress fatigue and frost‐induced weathering. Tinytalk? data loggers and probes were used for rock‐surface temperature recording. Long‐term measurements were recorded over 12 months from May 2002 to April 2003, at a 1‐hour logging interval and rock depth of 1 cm for a highaltitude (3300 m a.s.l.) interfluve and fracture site. Whilst the north‐facing rock surface experiences negligible hours below ?3°C, the south‐facing rock surface and interfluve sites are subjected to considerable periods below ?3°C, which falls within the ‘frost cracking window’. It is concluded that the substantial contrasts of recorded rock thermal parameters over small spatial scales between various topographic settings, highlight that site‐specific measurements across the broader scale are required for an adequate evaluation of regional weathering and its associated landform development.     

LATE QUATERNARY MORAINES ALONG THE SEKHOKONG RANGE, EASTERN LESOTHO: CONTRASTING THE GEOMORPHIC HISTORY OF NORTH- AND SOUTH-FACING SLOPES

Considerable Quaternary environmental reconstruction for the high Drakensberg is based on geomorphological and sedimentological work undertaken along the northern aspects of the Sekhokong mountain range of eastern Lesotho. Given that no previous investigations have focused on the southern aspects, this paper documents the observed geomorphology and provides a more complete palaeo-environmental picture for this range. Data on the morphology, sedimentology and micromorphology for two linear debris ridges are presented. It is demonstrated that the two ridges are most likely moraines originating from a small niche glacier. The combined use of macro- and micro-scale sedimentology is proven to be an essential tool in ascribing a glacial process origin for the landforms, given the complex depositional history they have undergone. AMS ages obtained from the deposits (14 700 cal. yrs bp and 19 350 cal. yrs bp ) places these in the time-scale of the Last Glacial Maximum. The study demonstrates rather contrasting aspect-controlled palaegeomorphological environments along the Sekhokong range, which is also reflected in the dissimilar contemporary biophysical micro-environments. It is suggested that the south-facing slopes were dominated by glacial processes during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), as is evident from the moraines, while the proposition for previously described north-facing glacial cirques is rejected based on the absence of erosional/depositional evidence and greater insolation received on these warmerequator-facing slopes. Rather, we propose that the observed north-facing hollows are a product of a multitude of geomorphic processes spanning several tens to hundreds of thousands of years.     

鼠害在若尔盖草原沙漠化进程中的作用与机理

若尔盖草原是中国高寒湿润地区发生大面积沙漠化的典型案例,其沙漠化的成因及发展趋势一直受到极大关注。通过野外考察、遥感卫星影像解译等,着重探讨了鼠害在若尔盖草原沙漠化的形成和发展过程中的作用。结果表明：旱獭洞的分布与丘陵沙丘在坡度和坡向上有高度的相似性。地表致密草皮层发生机械性破坏,致使下伏松散沙暴露是若尔盖草原沙漠化的关键一步。旱獭洞的坍塌在草皮层的破坏过程中起到了至关重要的作用。草皮层破坏后,下伏松散沙被侵蚀,引起草皮层坍塌,导致古沙丘活化,形成流动沙丘。在此过程中,自然因素如风、降水、冻融、重力,人为因素如过牧、牲畜活动,都起到了不同的作用。小型鼠类如高原鼢鼠、高原鼠兔的严重鼠害区可以形成轻度沙漠化。     

Cosmogenic nuclide concentrations in episodically eroding surfaces: Theoretical results

The buildup of cosmogenic nuclides in an eroding surface can be used to infer erosion rates and exposure ages. This situation is often modelled by assuming that the erosion rate is constant in time. In many cases, however, the erosion is episodic: surface denudation occurs by the spalling off of slabs of rock at discrete times. We consider a stochastic model of such exfoliation processes, and compute the expected behavior of the cosmogenic nuclide concentration. We also consider a nonstochastic model, in which the exfoliation events occur at regularly spaced intervals. These two models represent extreme end members of the episodic spallation scenarios: in the first, the spallation events are uncorrelated in time, while in the second they are tightly correlated. Understanding how the nuclide concentration is related to the timing and the magnitude of these events is important in making geologic inferences.     

Soil Destruction in Norway

In the coastal regions of western and northern Norway where there is little forest, peat is the most important fuel, as it has been for centuries. Because of this the sources of good peat have been reduced greatly in many districts. The peat in the coastal districts rests often directly on rock without loam, sand or gravel between the rock and the layer of organic material above. If the peat is removed, the land will be transformed into ponds or swamps. In the course of time great areas suited for cultivation have been destroyed in this way.

When the peat has been excavated, then the turf on more or less dry ground is utilized for fuel, i. e. grass turf and heather turf. In this way the surface humus layer is removed and the underlying mineral soil exposed to further erosion. The mineral layer that is left behind is usually too shallow or too coarse-grained to yield any production, and the posibilities for further use are diminishing. On the other hand, the ground might have been used as grazing land or for forest if the upper layer had been allowed to remain.     

若尔盖盆地沙漠化驱动机制

作为世界上最大的高寒泥炭沼泽湿地,若尔盖盆地是黄河水源的重要补给区,素有黄河"蓄水池"之称.作为生态敏感区,在自然环境和不合理的人为活动的影响下,若尔盖盆地出现了湿地萎缩、草场退化、沙地增加等一系列严重的生态环境问题.本文通过分析若尔盖盆地沙漠化现状及其驱动因素,进而阐述和分析沙漠化驱动机制.结果表明:若尔盖盆地广泛分布的古风沙沉积物是现代沙漠化的沙物质来源,地表致密草皮层的机械破坏,使下伏松散的古风沙沉积物暴露,是形成沙漠化的关键一步;随后在风蚀、雨水冲刷及生物因素的共同作用下,松散的古风沙沉积物被侵蚀,引起草皮层坍塌,导致古沙丘活化,风沙活动加剧,形成风沙沉积;若尔盖沙漠化是人为因素与自然因素共同作用的结果,其中人为因素是其主导驱动因素,鼠类活动和热融沉陷、滑塌是沙漠化的诱发因素.     

Climate controls on late Pleistocene landscape evolution of the Okhombe valley, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Hillslopes in central and western parts of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa are often mantled by colluvial sediments of the Masotcheni Formation. These sediments have accreted in response to several cycles of deposition, pedogenesis and incomplete erosion. Climatic controls on these cycles are incompletely known. Results from fieldwork, micromorphology, stable carbon isotope analysis and Optically Stimulated Luminescence dating of Masotcheni Formation sediments from Okhombe valley in the Drakensberg foothills are combined. Deposition in the area had at least 11 phases, starting before 42 ka and ending before 0.17 ka. The first six deposits (from before 42 ka to after 29 ka) resulted from the interplay between slope processes and fluvial redistribution under cold conditions. Solifluction was the most important slope process. No deposits have been found from the Last Glacial Maximum, arguably because this period was too dry. The last five deposits (from about 11 ka to before 0.17 ka) resulted from fluvial redistribution of upslope material and older deposits under increasing precipitation. Current extreme gully erosion in the Masotcheni Formation indicates a lack of available upslope material, leaving downslope deposits as the only sediment source for fluvial redistribution. This model for landscape response to climate change may be able to explain how climate controlled landscape processes in other Masotcheni Formation sites in KwaZulu-Natal. In the research area and elsewhere, this proposition may be tested with numerical landscape evolution models.     

SPATIAL ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN LONGEST-LASTING WINTER SNOW COVER AND COLD REGION LANDFORMS IN THE HIGH DRAKENSBERG, SOUTHERN AFRICA

Although snow is known to influence landform genesis and distribution, the spatial associations between snow and landforms within particular cold regions has received limited research attention. We present a case study from the high Drakensberg of southern Africa, comparing the contemporary spatial pattern of longest-lasting cold-season snow patches with the distribution patterns of active and relic cold region landforms. Two 30 m resolution sets of TM images dated 3 and 19 August 1990 and a DEM were used to demonstrate the geographic trends of snow patch depletion during late winter. Geomorphological phenomena with known coordinates were then incorporated into the GIS. The spatial distribution of several periglacial land-forms (earth hummocks, stone-/turf-banked lobes, block deposits, large sorted patterned ground) coincides with topographic positions that limit snow accumulation. However, the strong spatial association between longest-lasting snow patches and palaeo-moraines implies substantial snow accumulation at some high altitude south-facing sites during the last glacial cycle.     

基质矿化特性与生化性状协同效应的研究

研究不同配方基质矿化特性与生化性状协同效应,探索其养分释放规律,以期合理高效利用,为戈壁非耕地合理使用基质提供可靠的理论依据。实验以初选的三种不同配方基质为试材（T1：草炭+秸秆+牛粪+蛭石=2∶2∶4∶2;T2：草炭+秸秆+鸡粪+蛭石=5∶2∶2∶1;T3：草炭+秸秆+羊粪+蛭石=3∶2∶3∶2）,按一定温/湿度,采用室内培养法,测定养分指标和生化特性变化。结果表明,不同基质碳、氮、磷的矿化量、矿化率、残留率及生物化学性状等指标在不同培养期动态变化存在明显差异,其中,培养末期,T3有机碳矿化率最大、残留率最小,其净矿化量分别较T1和T2高41.9%和22.2%;T3在整个培养期氮矿化率和矿质氮含量最大,而残留率最小,其氮净矿化量分别较T1和T2高25.8%和71.8%;T1有机磷矿化率、净矿化量和残留率最大,T3则相反。T3多酚氧化酶、脲酶、碱性磷酸酶、蛋白酶在整个培养期内变幅最大,T1最小。基质配料和比例不同,其矿化特性和生物性状不同。T3更能充分发挥物料组合的促进效应,为微生物活动提供更加丰富的碳源和生长物质,是适合非耕地使用的基质配方。     

青海省贵南县土地沙漠化驱动机制

贵南县木格滩流沙区是共和盆地最大的连续沙带,当地现代沙漠化是由古沙丘活化形成的,但古沙丘活化过程尚不明确。通过实地考察、遥感卫星影像解译、DEM高程数据分析、沉积地层分析及粒度测试,对贵南县土地沙漠化驱动机制从微观层面进行了研究。结果表明：古沙丘表面发育良好的草皮层及粉沙土层是古沙丘的保护层,保护层完整性的破坏,使下伏松散古风成沙暴露,遭受风蚀,形成侧向凹槽,引起草皮层或粉沙土层崩塌,使更多的古风成沙暴露。风力侵蚀与重力侵蚀交替进行,导致风蚀坑不断扩大,相互连接成片,形成流动沙丘。     

青海湖滨土地沙漠化驱动机制

在自然因素和不合理人为活动的影响下,青海湖流域及其周边地区正面临土地沙漠化、湿地萎缩、草场退化、水土流失等严重的生态环境问题。本文分析了青海湖滨土地沙漠化现状及其驱动因素。结果表明:青海湖滨广泛分布的古风沙沉积物是现代沙漠化的沙物质来源,现代流动沙丘的粒度特征与古风成沙丘粒度极为相似,两者的继承与改造关系极为明显。草皮层及其下的粉沙土层是古沙丘的保护层。保护层的机械破坏,使下伏松散的古风沙沉积物暴露,是形成沙漠化的关键一步。随后在风蚀、雨水冲刷及其他因素的共同作用下,松散的古风沙沉积物被侵蚀,引起草皮层坍塌,导致古沙丘活化,风沙活动加剧,形成风沙沉积。流水侵蚀和地层沉陷是导致草皮层机械破坏的主要因素。青海湖水位下降,河流沉积,风沙入湖,都可使沙地面积增加,但仅限于湖边局部地方。     

RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE ATTRIBUTES ON THE LESOTHO–DRAKENSBERG ESCARPMENT EDGE, SOUTHERN AFRICA

Located near the southeastern limit of Africa, the Lesotho‐Drakensberg and associated escarpment is the highest range of African mountains south of the massifs in Tanzania. At the escarpment summit and on the adjacent high peaks, the climate is generally interpreted as marginal periglacial yet few data, specifically rainfall and temperature, exist on record at these altitudes. Climatic data from two temporary field stations on the escarpment edge, one of which is the highest rainfall station yet on record in southern Africa, provide contemporary surface‐climate conditions. Mean annual rainfall recorded between 2001 and 2005 averages 767.8 mm at Sani Pass summit (three complete years), and 753.2 mm on Sentinel Peak (two complete years); these values are less than those recorded for the same period in the mountain foothills. Even though rainfall is slightly below long‐term rainfall averages for the area due to a marginally dry spell, the data show that earlier estimates of between 1000 mm and 2000 mm rainfall per annum on the escarpment are too high. A measured mean air temperature of 5.8°C at Sani Pass, however, falls within the range estimated for the escarpment summit. Frost cycles in air and at the soil surface are frequent in winter, but absent in soil for summer, and no long‐duration surface‐soil freeze was measured. Temperatures thus confirm the marginal periglacial nature as postulated for previously, but precipitation data indicate a dryer environment than anticipated. Palaeoenvironmental scenarios, notably arguments for former glaciation based on extrapolations from somewhat exaggerated contemporary precipitation values, thus require re‐consideration.     

Green areas and water management in residential developments in the European Western Mediterranean. A case study of Alicante,Spain

The intense urbanization of the Mediterranean coast as a result of the development of residential-tourist activities since the 1960s, especially from the mid-1990s to 2008, has generated new urban environments associated with extensive urban typologies. These include gardens linked to houses with outdoor spaces that are shared between all of the residents of the residential developments. The aim of this study is to determine the main characteristics of these new urban green spaces and their effect on domestic water consumption in Alicante (Spain). To do this, we analysed the characteristics that define these types of gardens (surface area, density, plant species and irrigation system) and determined their water needs using the Water Use Classifications of Landscape Species method. The main conclusions are that the increase in paved areas is one of the strategies to reduce water consumption in spaces where turf grass is the most common plant species. This is due to increased water prices and lack of water resources.     

Plant communities of central Tibetan pastures in the Alpine Steppe/Kobresia pygmaea ecotone

Eleven plant communities of the central Tibetan ecotone (31°20′-33°00′N/89°00′-92°10′E) between the Kobresia pygmaea grazing pastures of the eastern highlands and the open short grass steppe with cushion plants (“Alpine Steppe”) of the north-western highlands have been described on the basis of 189 plot-based floristically complete vegetation records. In parallel, remote sensing techniques distinguish four main land-use cover types. Our hypotheses are: (1) The plant communities of the central Tibetan highlands are grazing-adapted and resilient to degradation. (2) In contrast to grazing resilient plant functional types, the turf cover of the K. pygmaea pastures and the Kobresia schoenoides wetlands is degradable through desiccation, periglacial processes, soil-dwelling small mammals and livestock. Five grazing-related plant functional traits are introduced. Grazing tolerance is the prevalent functional type. Species with no specific protection against grazing make up not more than 6% of the total cover. Unpalatable plants cover up to 8%. Only the azonal K. schoenoides swamps - the indispensable winter grazing reserve - have been widely degraded and depleted by 75%, being replaced by Carex sagaensis grazing pastures. It can be foreseen that governmental policy of sedentarisation of nomads will lead to reduced grazing mobility and degradation of winter grazing reserves.     

Towards the Reconstruction of Agriculture: Paths of Change and Adjustment*

This paper provides both retrospective and prospective insights into the processes of agricultural change. It begins with an analysis of structural change in Canadian agriculture and goes on to interpret these changes within the context of a number of contemporary theories and models of agricultural development and restructuring. It is clear from this discussion that there is no unified pattern of change or response to uncertainty. Instead there is a multiplicity of strategies which are formulated on the basis of complex farm-based and external factors. Since agricultural policy has played such a significant role in shaping much of the sector today, it is argued that society has the potential to create new opportunities and development paths which fulfill many of the criteria for sustainable food and rural systems.     

干旱区生态-水文过程研究的回顾与展望（英文）

Ecohydrology, aiming to study the interactions between terrestrial ecological systems and hydrological cycles as well as their impacts on water management, has been an emerging interdisciplinary research field since the 20 th century. It hosts both natural and human regulated processes that are potentially coupled in complex ways. Understanding the ecological-hydrological processes, the fundamental mechanisms and the connections between them is critical since these processes are not isolated but integrated to impact basin-scale hydrological and biogeochemical functioning of a larger river system, especially in arid environment where water resources are considered to be the source of life. Thus, research on ecological-hydrological processes in arid environment is not only a scientific focus area but also important to sustainable development. Research projects and initiatives involved in observation, measurement, modeling and data assimilation have been well-developed for those purposes over the past 20 years. This review summarizes the historical development of ecohydrology science in China and the state-of-the-art tools available in the research framework. Five grand scientific challenges are listed as prospects and exciting opportunities for the scientific community. To advance the current ecological-hydrological processes research, scientists from multidisciplinary backgrounds(such as geography, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, geochemistry and ecology), need to unite to tackle the many open problems in new dimensions.     

Rehabilitation of steppe pastures of Khakassia

We consider the current tendencies in the agricultural production of Siberia's steppe regions and the processes that are responsible for the current state and future utilization of pastures. It is shown that the ongoing reduction in livestock population, combined with a decrease in sown areas, has led to an increase in natural meadowlands, and to a widespread occurrence of post-pasture demutational successions. We outline the digression and demutation stages of steppe and sandy-steppe pastures and identify the features of their similarity and difference associated with resistance to grazing pressure. It is shown that overgrazing and underutilization decrease their natural potential. We have defined the degradation and desertification criteria for pastures, and the priorities of their utilization.     

Application of change detection techniques in geomorphological evolution of coastal areas. Example: Mouth of the River Ebro (period 1957–2013)

This study aims to test the effectiveness of the changes detection techniques to determine the evolution of the various geomorphological units identified in Ebro River mouth, in order to establish their evolutionary trends and to explain the changes between 1957 and 2013 years. To evaluate the most significant changes in the Ebro River mouth, the different geomorphological units present in the area were obtained by interpretation of aerial imagery. It has been noted that the period 1957–1984 was more dynamic and intense than the period 1984–2013, indicating a loss of capacity of the processes causing changes, and the shoreline is evolving toward a more stable morphology. It was determined that the most important processes that took place were mainly marine erosion processes and anthropogenic expansion. On the characterization in the entire period studied, it was determined that growth or decrease processes (net change) are as relevant in the region as processes which include location changes (swap). The change analysis methodology allows analyzing the evolution of coastal geomorphology, since it allows the determination and characterization of the principal transitions amongst the identified geomorphological units, and, therefore, to obtain the main processes that dominate the area, which is particularly relevant on highly vulnerable environments, such as coastal deltaic areas.