A National Accounting Framework for the Petroleum Cycle: A Case Study of China

In a world of climate change and socio-economic development, oil is the strategic resource that is closely intertwined and interdependent. Tracing the evolution of petroleum resources flow is fundamental to understanding petroleum supply and demand, and can also serve as the basis for assessing CO₂ emissions from petroleum products. This paper aims to provide a petroleum products flow accounting framework that divides petroleum flow into four phases, three flows, three libraries, and two processes, and summarizes the approach to measure and analyze petroleum resources flows. It takes China as an example for empirical research, and finds that: ① China’s petroleum production, consumption and import have significantly increased over the past two decades, and the combination of increasing demand and limited supply have created an urgent need for China to diversify its petroleum sources globally to ensure its oil security. ② Final consumption accounts for the use of most petroleum products and special attention should be paid to the losses in the petroleum refining process. ③ With the exception of crude oil, petroleum product flows among various sectors has changed greatly. Particularly, the flow of petroleum products into transport and residential consumption has trended upward significantly, whereas the flow to industry is trending downward. ④ CO₂ emission data shows that CO₂ emission amounts increased rapidly from 456Mt in 1993 to 1517Mt in 2013. Previously, the top three CO₂ emitters were the industrial sector, the transport sector including the transport, storage and post segments, and the thermal power sector. Currently, the largest emitters are the transport sector, the industrial sector and the residential consumption sector. Finally, poorly demarcated system boundaries and incomplete databases and models constrain research on industry flows of petroleum resources for non-energy use.     

Hydrological Studies and Water Resource Concerns in Southeast Asia

Water supply shortage has become a pressing issue in Southeast Asia in recent years. While on the one hand water demand is escalating with rapid economic development, urbanisation and related population concentrations, on the other, surface water supply sources are increasingly being threatened by the resultant land use changes. Therefore, any understanding of the region's water supply concerns necessarily takes into account the hydrological processes and changes consequent to human interference of the natural environment. Changes to the environment that curtail the quantity of water supply and affect its quality will in turn have implications for water resource issues in megacities and other urban areas. Equally critical to the supply of water are water resource and management issues, in particular, the adequate provision of safe water for human consumption, regarded as not only meeting a basic need but also a human right. This paper provides an overview of hydrological processes and water resource concerns and suggests the scope for further investigation, particularly by geographers.     

Sustainability in a materials world

Many adverse impacts on the environment can be directly related to the materials dispersed to the environment during processing or use, or after use as refuse and waste. Some materials, such as toxic wastes, are a major concern because they create immediate problems with longerterm effects. Gases released by major manufacturing industries can contribute to long-term regional and global problems such as acid rain or increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The use of other materials, however, appears to be more benign or strictly localized in their impacts. If the current per capita level of material consumption in the United States was achieved worldwide, it would create major stresses on both resource adequacy and the environment. In fact, stresses have been created and will continue from this consumption style (developed countries) even if others don't achieve them.Correspondence should be directed to Earle B. Amey, U.S. Geological Survey, National Center 983, Reston, Virginia 20192.     

资源流动的环境效应(英文)

21世纪,中国的人口和经济的持续增长面临着资源短缺和生态脆弱的限制。提高资源利用效率和消减资源利用引起的环境影响是学术界和决策者面临的新课题。本文从资源流动的视角研究资源利用过程及其引起的环境影响。我们把资源流动过程分解为开采、加工、转化、消费等几个关键环节,评价其资源利用效率和环境影响,并寻求改善的途径。因其资源消耗量大、生态环境影响严重,我们选取了林木、煤炭及石油研究其资源与产品流动及其环境影响。林木产品的产量、进出口量和消费量数据来自中国森林统计年鉴(1949-2001)。煤炭、石油的开采量、进出口量和消费量来自中国能源统计年鉴(1980-2006)。研究表明:过去几十年,中国的资源利用效率有所提高,资源消费结构逐步改善,但资源消费总量居高不下,对生态环境构成极大的压力。     

论泥石流沉积与环境

甘肃武都地区及陕西某些地区典型泥石流沉积剖面,可分为A,B,C,D,A′5种相。不同的相组合,剖面沉积特征及纵、横剖面等,都从不同的角度较好地记录了环境变化。     

厦门市土地利用/覆被变化对生态系统服务的影响

土地利用/覆被变化通过改变生态系统的结构与功能,进而对生态系统服务的供应产生影响。以厦门市为研究区域,引入土地利用强度指数,分析当地土地利用/覆被变化过程;将研究区划分为农田、森林和湿地三个生态系统,参考已有研究成果,构建生态系统服务价值评估模型,探讨区域整体服务价值的演变过程;并通过土地系统和生态系统二者的耦合变化关系探讨土地利用/覆被变化对生态系统服务的影响过程。结果表明：近20 年来,厦门市生态系统服务价值总量随土地利用强度的增强呈现逐年增加的趋势,由1987 年的34.8 亿元增加到2007 年的39.0 亿元,供给服务和调节服务是最主要的生态系统服务类型;土地利用强度的变化与供给服务和文化服务呈现正相关关系,而与调节服务和支持服务呈现负相关关系。     

Determinants for water consumption from improved sources in rural villages of southern Mali

Water supply must take into consideration a variety of factors, including consumer habits, options and needs. Little is known about water demands in rural areas of developing regions. Based on data from southern Mali, this paper banks on the hypothesis that water consumption in rural villages can be predicted by combining measurable variables with spatial analyses. A ten-day field campaign was carried out at the end of the dry season 2016. All improved water sources were checked for functionality, flow rate and water quality. Outcomes were coupled with those from over one-hundred household interviews and incorporated into a geographic database. Buffered network analyses were used to quantify the main spatial determinants for water use. Simple and multiple regression models were then developed to establish the main predictors for per capita and household water consumption. Multiple regression reveals that models based on the number of household members, travel time and total travel distance provide robust forecasts for water consumption (R² > 0.93). Conversely, potentially relevant parameters such as affordability or water quality were not statistically significant. This could be attributed to the presence of free water sources and to the absence of quality-monitoring, respectively. Outcomes also suggest that having access to basic means of transportation, such as pushcarts, doubles water consumption at the household level. In terms of access to improved water sources, coverage was found to be lower in practice than on paper. These outcomes contribute to the growing body of literature that challenges the widely accepted assumption that 90% of the world population has access to safe drinking supplies.     

基于行业分类的长江经济带工业用地供应 规模的时空演化

基于中国土地市场网的2010—2018年土地供应结果数据,运用空间分布重心、区位基尼系数和核密度估计法以长江经济带为例开展了各工业行业用地供应规模的时空演化研究,并探究了不同发展阶段下工业用地供给特征。结果表明：（1）长江经济带各行业用地规模均呈波动性下降态势,而工业配套服务业用地却呈上升趋势。（2）长江上游地区各产业的用地规模增长受到了限制。长江中游地区工业化发展模式正在发生改变,由土地宽供应保增长的发展模式转变为依靠基础设施的拉投资保增长。长江下游地区的各产业处于转型升级形成新集聚阶段,开始了新一轮的产业生产。（3）研究期间,采掘业、其他工业和原材料加工业用地空间上相对集聚演变,能源供应工业、高新技术工业、工业配套服务业、食品轻纺业和现代制造业用地空间上相对均衡演变。（4）处于工业化中期和工业化后期的区域出让工业用地受政治经济环境的影响较大;不同发展阶段的区域平均供地规模和供地行业不同,区域发展阶段越高,对工业用地的需求越大。     

Can gains in efficiency offset the resource demands and CO2 emissions from constructing and operating the built environment?

Urbanization is a demographic, economic, and land transformation process. Building construction and operation are integral aspects of urban land use change and contribute to material and energy resources consumption and the resulting carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in urban areas. In this paper, we ask two questions regarding the urbanization process: 1) Do the land, material, and energy use efficiencies associated with the construction and operation of buildings increase over time? 2) Do the gains in resource use efficiencies offset the increases in resource demands due to the magnitude of urbanization? To answer these questions, we use a systematic approach similar to a material flow analysis and apply it to the Pearl River Delta, a rapidly urbanizing region in China. We use a combination of satellite data and official statistics to evaluate changes in urban population density and building density from 1988 to 2008. Both density measures decrease from 1988 to 2003; after 2003, building density increases while population density continues to decline. We also track the indirect impacts of urban land expansion on material and energy demands and associated CO₂ emissions using concrete and heating/cooling as proxies for building construction and operation, respectively. Throughout the study period, structural changes and efficiency gains decrease the demand per unit floor area for both building materials and energy. However, the efficiency gains are outstripped by the magnitude of urban expansion, therefore leading to an increase in the demand for resources and CO₂ emissions per capita. Our results show that focusing only on gains in efficiency for individual buildings without considering the scale of urban expansion results in underestimate of the cumulative energy, material, and greenhouse gas emissions impacts of urbanization. We emphasize the distinction between the rates versus the accumulations of these impacts over spatial and temporal scales. We discuss the relevance of the Environmental Kuznets approaches to tackling environmental impacts that are cumulative in nature and may lead to irreversible changes in the environment. We conclude that tracking the energy, materials, and emissions impacts of urbanization requires a multi-scale approach that ranges from the individual building to the urban region.     

Grand Challenges in Metal Life Cycles

Metal life cycles define and quantify the rates of supply and demand for metals currently used in modern society. Each metal life cycle stage is potentially influenced by material transformation losses, import/export flows, and stockpiling. Flows and stocks in metal life cycles, the rates of by-product extraction, determinations of metal stocks in use, and scrap generation rates remain difficult to quantify, rendering it difficult to make reasonable estimates of the future supply of secondary metals and, therefore, of the future demands for primary metals. This paper presents four grand challenges to geologists, materials scientists, product designers, and industrial ecologists. Addressing these challenges is a prerequisite to achieving better resource efficiencies, as well as to addressing our moral obligation to enable a resource-sufficient life for future generations.     

基于能值的内蒙古生态经济系统分析与可持 续发展战略研究

内蒙古是我国西部开发、生态环境建设、农牧业结构调整、民族团结稳定的重要区域。本 文主要运用能值理论和方法, 对其主要资源的贮存价值、总能值用量、能值的流入流出情况、能值 自给率、能值投资率、环境负载率、人口承载力、可持续发展指数等指标进行了系统研究, 并与其 他国家的有关指标进行了比较研究。结果表明内蒙古总能值用量的98.11%来自于区内, 其中 74.26%为不可更新资源。提出内蒙古地区实现可持续发展的对策为调整产业结构, 提高资源利用 效率; 努力获得更多的外部高品质的能值反馈; 加快软硬件的建设, 促进旅游业的快速发展。     

Depositional systems in multiphase rifts: seismic case study from the Lofoten margin,Norway

The evolution of depositional systems in multiphase rifts is influenced by the selective reactivation of faults between subsequent rift phases. The Middle Jurassic to Palaeocene tectonic history of the Lofoten margin, a segment of the North Atlantic rift system, is characterised by three distinct rift phases separated by long (>20 Myr) inter‐rift periods. The initial rift phase comprised a distinct fault initiation and linkage stage, whereas the later rift phases were characterised by selective reactivation of previously linked through‐going faults which resulted in immediate rift climax. Using 2‐D and 3‐D seismic reflection data in conjunction with shallow core data we present a 100 Myr record of shallow to deep marine depositional environments that includes deltaic clinoform packages, slope aprons and turbidite fans. The rapid re‐establishment of major faults during the later rift phases impacts on drainage systems and sediment supply. Firstly, the immediate localisation of strain and accumulation of displacement on few faults results in pronounced footwall uplift and possible fault block rotation along those faults, which makes it more likely for any antecedent fault‐transverse depositional systems to become reversed. Secondly, any antecedent axially‐sourced depositional systems that are inherited from the foregoing rift phase(s) are likely to be sustained after reactivation because such axial systems have already been directed around fault tips. Hence, the immediate localisation of strain through selective reactivation in the later rift phases restricts fault‐transverse sediment supply more than axial sediment supply, which is likely to be a key aspect of the tectono‐sedimentary evolution of multiphase rifts.     

莫高窟顶戈壁偏东风作用下输沙率变化的观测研究

通过一次沙尘暴天气过程对莫高窟顶不同观测点戈壁风沙流结构和输沙率的时空变化特征进行了系统同步观测。观测表明,偏东风条件下,当风速为10 m·s-1时,水平观测方向上存在一个各点输沙率平衡的阶段,即崖顶戈壁至鸣沙山边缘戈壁各观测点的输沙率相当;当风速大于10 m·s-1时,戈壁地表以风蚀搬运作用为主,出现了戈壁向鸣沙山的长距离风沙搬运;当风速小于10 m·s-1时,戈壁沙物质的长距离搬运作用不明显。不同风况及沙源条件下,风沙流结构和输沙特征会发生显著变化。借鉴Lattau输沙率方程,运用风速和输沙率推算各观测点输沙率的时空变化,计算结果表明,在风速为10 m·s-1左右时,窟顶戈壁带的输送效率约为60%。     

基于辐射井抽水试验的水文地质参数求解

在新疆台兰河流域冲洪积扇平原修建坎儿井式地下水库,以解决干旱区水资源合理利用分配等问题。为确定该地下水库库区的水文地质参数,本文利用研究区抽水试验资料,采用等效大井法和博尔顿法计算含水层的渗透系数和给水度,并利用MODFLOW软件建立了数值模型,进行参数反演,以验证计算结果的准确性、可靠性。利用等效大井法在已知抽水量和降深的前提下,反求含水层渗透系数;通过博尔顿法的“迟后疏干”效应,采用配线法确定给水度。计算结果表明：对于台兰河流域含水层的水文地质参数的计算,采用等效大井法和博尔顿法计算的结果较符合实际,为今后计算干旱区含水层水文地质参数提供参考依据。     

确定坡面径流过程曼宁糙率系数的实验方法研究

曼宁糙率系数是用水动力学方法进行流速计算的关键参数。坡面流曼宁糙率系数与明渠流的不同。为确定坡面径流过程的曼宁糙率系数,自行研发了一种包括供水系统、实验水槽和数据观测记录系统的室内可变糙率坡面实验系统。通过87场预实验验证了供水系统的稳定性和准确性。以坡度、实测流量、实测水深、不同糙率板上河砂的平均直径和地表粗糙度为自变量,以曼宁糙率系数为因变量,选用均方根误差(RMSE)和决定系数(R ²)为评价指标,对166种实验场景进行了支持向量机(Support Vector Machines, SVM)训练与预测,发现：① 紊流的训练结果难以预测层流和过渡流的曼宁糙率系数,说明流态不同时,实验因素对水流的影响机制不同;② 若要较为准确地预测曼宁糙率系数,至少需要包括实测水深在内的3种因素;③ 当同时考虑4种及更多种因素时,紊流状态下均可对曼宁糙率系数进行较为准确的预测。     

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Supply and Demand Balance of Water Supply Services in the Dongjiang Lake Basin and Its Beneficiary Areas

Water-related ecosystem services is a hot topic in ecological research. Water supply services are crucial to regional water cycles and water quantity balance. The Dongjiang Lake basin is a national priority river basin in China where ecological compensation pilot programs concerning water resources and water supply services are top priorities for ecosystem service protection. We analyzed spatial and temporal patterns associated with generation and use of water supply services in the Dongjiang Lake basin using the InVEST model, socio-economic data and water resource data. We found that between 1995 and 2010, water yield in the Dongjiang Lake basin and its beneficiary areas increased before declining, varying 9350-12 400 m³ ha^-1 y^-1; average water yield peaked in 2000. The spatial distribution patterns of water yield during these years are similar, progressively decreasing from upstream to downstream with a remarkable reduction in surrounding areas of city clusters. Average water consumption of the basin and its beneficiary areas ranged from 2900-4450 m³ ha^-1 y^-1 between 1995 and 2010; the spatial distribution patterns of water consumption during these years are similar, dropping gradually from urban construction land to its surroundings with a stronger gradient between urban and rural areas. More water was consumed on both banks and surroundings of the lake. From 1995 to 2010, water supply fell short of demand for urban construction land and its proximity as well as areas along the lake. Water supply services were able to satisfy needs in other regions. The Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan city cluster suffers from the most strained water supply.     

我国城市居民直接能耗的碳排放类型及影响因素

针对我国287个地级以上城市,在测算了近9年居民直接能耗导致的CO₂排放量的基础上,进行聚类、对比,并分析城市居民直接能耗的碳排放影响因素,得到以下结论:全国分为6类城市居民直接能耗碳排放类型;高碳排放型城市的地均碳排放强度、人均工资碳排放强度及居民直接能耗CO₂排放总量等方面均比低碳排放型城市高,人均地方生产总值碳排放强度低于低碳排放型城市,并多为经济发达城市和资源丰富城市,其碳排放构成上分别以电、交通能耗碳排放和气碳排放为主导,高碳排放型城市居民直接能耗CO₂排放量占全国地级以上城市的86.20%。我国大部分地级城市居民直接能耗的碳排放属于相对低碳排放型,其人均CO₂排放量低于全国平均水平。城市所在地的降温度日数(CDD)、采暖期、采暖强度、人均能源供给量、居民的人均工资、城市人均地方生产总值是影响城市居民直接能耗CO₂排放量的主要因素。     

Groundwater vulnerability and risk mapping for the Basaltic aquifer of the Azraq basin of Jordan using GIS, Remote sensing and DRASTIC

Water consumption in Jordan already exceeds renewable freshwater resources by more than 20% and, after the year 2005, freshwater resources are likely to be fully utilised. Over 50% of supply derives from groundwater and this paper focuses on a small part of the northern Badia region of Jordan that is underlain by the Azraq groundwater basin where it has been estimated that annual abstraction stands at over 100% of the projected safe yield. While water supply is a crucial issue, there is also evidence to suggest that the quality of groundwater supplies is also under threat as a result of salinisation and an increase in the use of agrochemicals. Focusing on this area, this paper attempts to produce groundwater vulnerability and risk maps. These maps are designed to show areas of greatest potential for groundwater contamination on the basis of hydro-geological conditions and human impacts. All of the major geological and hydro-geological factors that affect and control groundwater movement into, through, and out of the study area were incorporated into the DRASTIC model. Parameters included; depth to groundwater, recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, and impact of the vadose zone. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer was not included in calculating the final DRASTIC index for potential contamination due to a lack of sufficient quantitative data. A Geographical Information System (GIS) was used to create a groundwater vulnerability map by overlaying the available hydro-geological data. The resulting vulnerability map was then integrated with a land use map as an additional parameter in the DRASTIC model to assess the potential risk of groundwater to pollution in the study area. The final DRASTIC model was tested using hydrochemical data from the aquifer. Around 84% of the study area was classified as being at moderate risk while the re mainder was classified as low risk. While the analysis of groundwater chemistry was not conclusive, it was encouraging to find that no well with high nitrate levels was found in the areas classified as being of low risk suggesting that the DRASTIC model for this area provided a conservative estimate of low risk areas. It is recognised that the approach adopted to produce the DRASTIC index was limited by the availability of data. However, in areas with limited secondary data, this index provides important objective information that could be used to inform local decision making.     

古尔班通古特沙漠南缘梭梭茎干液流变化及其对环境因子的响应

利用TDP热扩散式茎流计,结合气象观测系统,对古尔班通古特沙漠南缘原生梭梭的树干液流及环境因子进行连续监测,分析了梭梭树干液流对环境要素的响应,基于潜在蒸散发和蒸腾需求指数对梭梭茎干液流进行了模拟。结果表明：（1）梭梭树干液流在晴天的日变化呈单峰曲线,液流速率上升阶段时间短于下降阶段时间,与气象因素的日变化规律不一致。不同季节梭梭树干液流速率日变化规律存在差异,夏季液流与春季、秋季相比,启动早,停止晚,峰值更大且发生更早。（2）环境要素间存在着不同程度的相关性,主成分分析表明：前三个主成分共能解释85%的环境信息,其中以空气湿度、空气温度、水汽压亏缺、潜在蒸散发、净辐射为主的第一主成分能解释47%环境信息变化,以土壤温度、水汽压为主的第二主成分能解释20%环境信息变化,以土壤含水量、风速为主的第三主成分能解释17.6%的环境信息变化。（3）在春季和夏季基于潜在蒸散发的S型模型模拟梭梭液流速率的精度更高,在秋季基于蒸腾需求指数模拟的梭梭液流速率的精度更高。（4）梭梭树干液流速率与大气水分亏缺、净辐射、潜在蒸散发之间存在非对称响应,且不同季节间的响应规律存在差异,在春季和秋季,液流速率与水汽压亏缺呈顺时针状,与净辐射、潜在蒸散发呈逆时针状;在夏季,液流速率与水汽压亏缺呈顺时针状,与净辐射、潜在蒸散发呈斜8字顺时针状。     

Prospectivity Modeling for Cambrian–Ordovician Hydraulic Fracturing Sand Resources Around The Llano Uplift,Central Texas

Cambrian–Ordovician strata in Central Texas are a major source of specialty sand for hydraulic fracturing and have potential to play a bigger role in proppant supply to markets in and around Texas. Sandstone in the Hickory Member of the Riley Formation is suitable in compressive strength, as well as grain size and shape to be used as proppant. The Hickory sandstone forms the basal sequence that non-conformably overlies the Precambrian basement and is a complex succession of terrestrial and transgressive marine arkosic to quartz arenitic sands and silts. The quantity and location of sand resources in the Central Texas Frac Sand district is illustrated through geospatial volumetric techniques and estimated at 5 billion tonnes of proppant material. The prospectivity modeling of favorable characteristics of existing resource locations is applied to determine new sites for resource development and locate and quantify the abundance of prospective natural sand resources in the Central Texas Frac Sand district.