敦煌莫高窟洞窟围岩渗透特性研究

敦煌莫高窟壁画受自身材质和自然环境等的影响,已经保存了1000多年的壁画产生起甲、酥碱、空鼓、壁画大面积脱落等多种病害。多项研究已经证明,这些病害主要是由于水盐运移导致的,水汽在岩体内的运移促使盐分在壁画表面富集是造成石窟病害主要原因之一。通过石窟围岩的渗透性研究可以解释水汽运移的规律,研究壁画病害形成的机制。在研究中应用原位定水位渗透试验测得了莫高窟洞窟围岩不同地层岩组的渗透系数,并通过高密度电阻率法监测原位渗透试验、X射线CT计算岩石孔隙比等多种方法和手段研究莫高窟围岩的渗透性,认为敦煌莫高窟围岩不同地层具有不同的渗透性,因此,即便处于同一地层岩组,渗透系数也有较大差别;在莫高窟围岩中存在渗透性好的地层,使水汽通过这些地层岩组向洞窟内运移成为可能;鉴于文物的特殊性等原因,在无法直接测得围岩渗透性的情况下,高密度电阻率法和X射线CT扫描是了解围岩渗透特性有效的办法。     

敦煌莫高窟玉门组砂砾岩风化特征研究

风化是引起莫高窟围岩（砂砾岩）破坏的一种重要病害,严重影响莫高窟的长期保存。为研究莫高窟玉门组砂砾岩的风化特征,选取莫高窟南侧一处崖体为试验点,采用逐层剥离的方法,分别在距崖体侧表面0cm、3cm、5cm、8cm及10cm深度处进行现场声波测试、回弹测试并取样进行X-射线衍射试验和易溶盐试验。试验结果表明:莫高窟围岩在风化作用下强度降低,现场声波测试和回弹测试结果均随着开挖深度的增加而不断升高;砂砾岩胶结物的主要矿物为石英、方解石、长石、白云石、石膏等,主要黏土矿物是绿泥石;其可溶盐主要包括Na₂SO₄、NaCl、CaSO₄等。同时结合气象数据及试验结果,分析了影响岩体风化的主要因素,初步讨论了岩体的风化机理,包括:（1）温度应力引起岩体结构破坏和裂隙发育;（2）胶结物中的主要矿物方解石易于发生水化作用,转化成易溶的Ca（HCO₃）₂,发生迁移,破坏岩体的胶结结构;（3）盐风化也是岩体风化的一个重要方式,Na₂SO₄、CaSO₄等可溶盐在水汽作用下发生溶解、结晶及水合作用,体积膨胀,对孔隙壁产生较大压力,致使岩体颗粒之间联结减弱,结构破坏,裂隙发育。     

砂砾岩油气储层水力压裂强化增透裂隙扩展特性试验研究

水力压裂是提高砂砾岩油气储层渗透率从而提高油气产量的有效方法。本文利用由冻土三轴力学实验系统改装而成的三轴水力压裂物理实验系统,系统的考察了六个粒径等级的砂砾岩试样在水力压裂作用下的相关力学特性,测试了不同粒径等级试样的起裂压力,研究获得了不同粒径尺寸等级下砂砾岩试样裂隙发育、扩展特性和应变演化规律,砂砾岩的粒径等级越大,裂纹分支越多,粒径等级越小,裂纹分支越少;揭示了不同粒径尺寸等级下砂砾岩试样主裂缝起裂与扩展规律,推导出了起裂时水压力的临界值计算公式和起裂判据,其计算结果与实验数据基本吻合。研究成果可以为砂砾岩油气开采提供理论支撑。     

四川广元千佛崖石窟造像表面风化的环境地质问题分析

采用温湿度测试、石窟造像渗水实验、石窟造像吸水的红外成像、岩石特征分析等手段,对四川广元千佛崖石窟造像表面及其周围环境进行监测,以及对石窟造像岩石特征进行分析。结果表明：进深较大的窟室内外存在2℃~4℃的温差,岩石0~40 mm深度范围内温度与外界气温存在显著相关性;石窟造像岩石主要成分为长石、石英、黑云母及黏土矿物,岩石渗水率和吸水率高,表层风化程度高。环境和岩石特征揭示广元千佛崖石窟造像的风化机理为：石质文物棱角部位和小型石窟造像对温度的变化敏感,当气温出现变化时,其温度变化剧烈,而其他部位相对滞后,从而导致石窟造像表层岩石在热胀冷缩的应力下出现微裂隙,并随着微裂隙逐渐增大,石质文物表面出现疏松、起壳、鳞片剥落等病害。同时微裂隙的出现增加水入渗的途径并扩大水-岩相互作用的面积,含水矿物的水合压力和结晶压力使岩石内部结构疏松逐渐破坏;水化学作用导致可溶盐离子形成,并随水毛细迁移在石窟造像表面聚集,导致石窟造像表面酥碱、锈染、彩绘层空鼓等失去原真而破坏。最后提出在窟龛上面加盖窟檐和在崖顶及立面坡面刻槽疏排水流等石窟造像治理措施来减缓其表面风化。     

可溶盐对云冈石窟砂岩劣化试验及模型建立

可溶盐富集是造成山西大同云冈石窟砂岩表面风化、结构破坏及强度降低的重要地质病害之一。采取云冈石窟造像层砂岩,使用芒硝对该砂岩进行了劣化模拟试验。在可溶盐反复结晶过程中,对样品进行实时变形监测,并对循环过程中质量衰减、强度变化、孔隙分布等进行测试与分析。结果表明,可溶盐的发育是导致石窟表面粉化脱落的重要因素,严重降低了石窟文物本体的价值;可溶盐结晶导致岩石颗粒间胶结作用破坏,增大岩石孔隙率,岩石内部结构劣化严重影响岩石的刚度与强度等力学参数;对比无水芒硝与10水芒硝两种劣化试验,云冈石窟在相对干燥季节下,可溶盐晶体发育对岩石破坏更为显著。为了预测砂岩长期劣化过程,在试验数据基础上,初步建立起孔隙增长的对数模型和强度衰减的指数模型。     

断陷湖盆致密砂砾岩储层特征与成因

徐家围子断陷是我国断陷湖盆致密砂砾岩气勘探区块之一,其下白垩统沙河子组是勘探的主力目的层,储层致密是该区致密气勘探亟需解决的关键问题。通过岩心观察、薄片分析、扫描电镜观测、压汞测试和物性统计,分析了下白垩统沙河子组砂砾岩储层的特征,从沉积、成岩角度讨论了储层致密的成因。研究表明,沙河子组砂砾岩储层主要为扇三角洲和辫状河三角洲沉积,储层物性差,具有低孔、低渗特征;储集空间具有孔隙-裂缝双介质特征,孔隙类型多为长石溶孔、岩屑溶蚀,孔隙结构复杂,缩颈型喉道和管束状喉道占主导地位,裂缝类型为压裂缝。储层特征受沉积和成岩作用共同控制,近源搬运背景下砂砾岩的成熟度低,高含量的塑性岩屑和泥质杂基不利于原生孔隙的保存,沉积物粒度和埋深决定了微裂缝的发育程度。成岩作用通过储层埋藏史影响储集物性,储层原生孔隙在早期快速深埋过程中大量减少,导致后期生烃流体运移不畅,限制了溶蚀作用的发育规模;同时,溶蚀期以后砂砾岩储层再次埋深并经历强烈的胶结作用,残余粒间孔和次生溶孔再次遭受破坏,最终形成低孔、超低渗致密储层。     

沿海滩涂区底泥-水体可溶性盐分迁移规律研究

底泥盐分的释放是滨海区水体咸化的重要因素之一。从研究底泥-水体系统盐分迁移规律入手,通过室内实验主要探索了静置状态下底泥厚度对该系统中盐分迁移的影响,并初步阐明了系统中的溶质运移机理。实验结果表明:底泥厚度的大小与其单位质量盐分释放强度以及盐分迁移率均成反比;仅在分子扩散作用下发生的垂向溶质运移影响深度是有限的;底泥盐分向水中释放的过程是不连续的,将这种导致土体盐分释出忽快忽慢的现象称之为盐分分层释出。     

大同云冈石窟可溶盐的分布及硫同位素特征

云冈石窟的盐分是促进砂岩风化的重要因素.石窟岩壁上的盐类晶族以硫酸盐沉积为主,主要成分为泻利盐、石膏;其次为碳酸盐沉积物,主要为方解石和碳酸镁.砂岩体中硫含量与石雕表面降尘和当地煤层相比极低.硫同位素分析显示煤矿的硫同位素值最低,煤燃烧产生同位素分馏,进入水体和土壤,引起雨水、滴水和地下水硫同位素值增加,洞窟岩壁的盐类和土壤盐形成时再次发生分馏,其δ34S值进一步升高.同位素证据表明石窟表面盐类中硫的来源主要是大气干湿沉降.     

福建武夷山风景区红色砂砾岩单轴受压声发射实验

根据武夷山九曲溪风景区工程地质条件,对取自一线天景点岩体的白垩系崇安组红色砂砾岩样品进行声发射实验,得到样品在单轴压力加载过程中的应力-应变曲线,声发射参数与应力、应变、时间之间的关系。红色砂砾岩的破坏过程分为压密变形、弹性变形、塑性变形、破裂四个阶段,每个阶段声发射特征不同,声发射能量和振铃计数变化很大,岩石破裂时的声发射能量达到2×10~6mv×μs以上,振铃计数在2×10~4左右。实验发现,在塑性阶段,岩石的声发射累计能量和振铃次数相比较于弹性阶段中后期和破裂阶段更趋于平缓,存在一个平静期。FFT变换分析得出样品破裂时的主频为25 KHz和50 KHz。实验成果为武夷山风景区岩体稳定性监测技术开发提供了基础数据。     

关于热液岩

热液岩是指由热液（气水热液的总称）中结晶出来的矿物所组成的岩石。热液岩是在热液的形成过程中,或是在热液的运移过程中,萃取了先存岩石中的成分,并将其运移到了一定的空间（断裂的裂隙、褶皱的虚脱部位等）,由于热液的压力、温度、pH值及其他物理化学条件的变化,被热液萃取的某些组分从热液中结晶出来所组成的岩石。     

Impact of in-pore salt crystallization on transport properties

Precipitation of salts in confined spaces is the key mechanism for rock weathering and damage to building materials. To date there is no comprehensive study of the parameters influencing the reduction of pore space by salt crystals and the consequences for transport and damage by crystallization pressure. A novel method is presented to quantify pore clogging (i.e., the degree to which crystallization of salts interferes with transport of solution in porous materials). After drying capillary-saturated stone specimens containing salt solutions, the rate of capillary uptake of decane into the salt-contaminated specimens is measured. By treating the salt-contaminated material as a bilayer, the width of the crystallization front and the degree of pore filling can be determined. Two model materials with different pore size distributions (Indiana and Highmoor limestone) and three salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate) are selected for this study. It is shown that pore clogging results from the interplay between pore size distribution and salt properties. Different scenarios are discussed to link pore clogging with salt damage.     

Assessment of the Effects of Freeze–Thaw and Salt Crystallization Ageing Tests on Anahita Temple Stone,Kangavar, West of Iran

Building stone of Anahita Temple seriously suffers from weathering due to long term freezing-thawing and salt crystallization processes. This article investigates possible changes of physical and mechanical characteristics of this stone subjected to freeze–thaw and salt crystallization ageing tests. Fresh samples obtained from the Chelmaran quarry (the main quarry supplying for Anahita Temple stone) were tested under freeze–thaw and salt crystallization experiments. The freeze–thaw and sodium sulfate salt crystallization are suggested to be the most effective factors affecting in apparent deterioration of the stone in compare to the magnesium sulfate salt crystallization test. Significant decreases in mechanical properties of the stone were observed after freeze–thaw and salt crystallization tests. However, more mechanical losses were recorded after the salt crystallization cycles than the freeze–thaw cycles. This is probably due to crystallization pressure of salt crystals in compare to ice wedging force, which promoted more development of micro-fractures in the specimens. Probably, intrinsic factors of the stone such as frequent calcite veins and stylolites, are the main factors that control the durability of Anahita Temple stone. Preferential weakening along these features during freeze–thaw and salt crystallization cycles led to physical destruction and strength loss of the stone. Based on comparison between experimentally induced damages and field observations, reasonably freeze–thaw process is major factor in weathering of Anahita Temple stone. It should be noted that recorded 102 frozen days for the region imply high destruction potential of the stone during freeze–thaw cycles.     

Crystallization of sodium sulfate phases in porous materials: The phase diagram Na2SO4-H2O and the generation of stress

Mechanical disintegration by crystal growth of salts in pores is generally considered as an important mechanism of rock breakdown both on Earth and on Mars. Crystal growth is also a major cause of damage in porous building materials. Sodium sulfate is the most widely used salt in accelerated weathering tests of natural rocks and building materials. This paper provides an updated phase diagram of the Na₂SO₄-H₂O system based on a careful review of the available thermodynamic data of aqueous sodium sulfate and the crystalline phases. The phase diagram includes both the stable phases thenardite, Na₂SO₄(V), and mirabilite, Na₂SO₄·10H₂O, and, the metastable phases Na₂SO₄(III) and Na₂SO₄·7H₂O. The phase diagram is used to discuss the crystallization pathways and the crystallization pressures generated by these solids in common laboratory weathering experiments and under field conditions. New crystallization experiments carried out at different temperatures are presented. A dilatometric technique is used to study the mechanical response of sandstone samples in typical wetting-drying experiments as in the standard salt crystallization test. Additional experiments with continuous immersion and evaporation were carried out with the same type of sandstone. Both, the theoretical treatment and the results of the crystallization experiments confirm that the crystallization of mirabilite from highly supersaturated solutions is the most important cause of damage of sodium sulfate in porous materials.     

湿度对盐溶液在壁画地仗中的毛细迁移影响研究

盐溶液在地仗中毛细迁移引起的盐分迁移、富集已成为壁画病害发生的重要原因。研究不同湿度条件下盐溶液在模拟地仗中的毛细迁移过程对可溶盐再分布的影响。分析不同湿度条件下毛细上升高度随时间的变化关系,含水率和电导率随高度变化关系,毛细饱和后试样表面变化情况及可溶盐含量随试样高度的分布。试验结果表明,空气相对湿度越低,毛细上升过程中水分向空气中迁移越多,水分难以向上迁移。试样的含水率随高度呈递减趋势,而电导率随试样高度增加而增大。可溶盐在毛细水上升过程中发生结晶分异,毛细前锋以NaCl结晶富集为主,亚前锋以Na2SO4结晶富集为主。其研究结果可以为壁画盐害的防治提供基础科学依据。     

The role of saline solution properties on porous limestone salt weathering by magnesium and sodium sulfates

Saline solution properties, viscosity in particular, are shown to be critical in salt weathering associated with sodium and magnesium sulfate crystallization in porous limestone. The crystallization of sodium and magnesium sulfate within a porous limestone has been studied at a macro- and microscale using different techniques, including mercury intrusion porosimetry, environmental scanning microscopy and X-ray computed tomography. Such analysis enabled the visualization of the crystallization process in situ, and at high magnification, yielding critical information as to where and how salts crystallize. Sodium sulfate decahydrate (mirabilite) tends to crystallize in large pores as euhedral micron-sized crystals formed at low supersaturation near to the surface of the stone. In contrast, magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (epsomite) tends to precipitate as anhedral wax-like aggregates formed at high supersaturation and distributed homogeneously throughout the stone pore system filling large and small pores. While the former crystallization behavior resulted in scale formation, the latter led to crack development throughout the bulk stone. Ultimately, the contrasting weathering behavior of the two sulfates is explained by considering differences in flow dynamics of solutions within porous materials that are mainly connected with the higher viscosity of magnesium sulfate saturated solution (7.27 cP) when compared with sodium sulfate saturated solution (1.83 cP). On the basis of such results, new ways to tackle salt weathering, particularly in the field of cultural heritage conservation, are discussed.     

开放系统下硫酸钠盐对土体冻胀的影响

易溶盐在土中的存在及其在冻结过程中的重新分布对土体的冻结过程有重要影响.在开放系统单向冻结条件下,对青藏铁路沿线粉质红粘土进行了冻结试验.结果表明:随着冷能的持续传递,硫酸钠盐和水分向温度较低处迁移,土体0℃曲线持续降低;但基于测定的含盐土大量冻结温度的基础上,对土体冻深的研究发现,在开放单向冻结条件下土体冻深随着水盐迁移进程的发展而减小,造成与补蒸馏水的土体相比,土体的冻胀较小.同时,利用冻深发展曲线和硫酸钠水溶液相图及溶解度曲线,对土柱中的冻胀和盐胀分别进行了计算,结果认为:土体变形主要是由冻胀引起,硫酸钠结晶膨胀只发生在未冻土段,这与试验结束后对土体冻土段和未冻土段的干密度分层测定的试验结果相一致.     

含NaCl和Na2SO4双组分盐渍土的水盐相变温度研究

盐渍土相变温度是判断土体中水分冻结与融化、盐分结晶与溶解的重要参数。不同盐分含量相变温度的差异,给盐渍土在降温过程中的水盐迁移过程及变形规律的模拟带来极大的不确定性。通过降温试验,研究了降温过程中氯盐和硫酸盐综合作用盐渍土中水盐相变温度的变化情况。结果表明：全盐量相同时,盐结晶温度随NaCl和Na₂SO₄比例的不同而不同。随NaCl的加入,在Na⁺同离子效应的影响下,Na₂SO₄更容易结晶,但土体的冰和芒硝共晶点温度下降,使得冰含量显著减少,从而降低了孔隙溶液中固相的产生比例,起到抑制Na₂SO₄盐渍土盐冻胀变形的作用。当土中只含Na₂SO₄盐时,随Na₂SO₄浓度的增加,冰和芒硝共晶点的温度先上升而后缓慢下降,二次相变前冰盐的累积量是导致冰和芒硝共晶点产生这种变化的主要原因。盐渍土三相共晶点温度随NaCl含量的增加呈现上升趋势,这是因为随着NaCl的加入,在发生三相共晶前,孔隙溶液发生相变的固相含量减少,从而使孔隙结构对三相共晶点的影响减小。此外,含有NaCl与Na₂SO₄双组分的盐渍土,水分和盐分可能以单固相、双固相以及三固相状态析出。研究结果可为深入认识盐渍土的相变规律及物理性质提供理论支撑。     

An integrated methodology for salt damage assessment and remediation: the case of San Jerónimo Monastery (Granada, Spain)

San Jerónimo Monastery (Granada, Spain) was selected as a case study for the investigation of the effect of indoor environmental conditions on salt weathering and for on-site testing of a remediation treatment using crystallization inhibitors on account of the extreme salt damage affecting both the building stone, a biomicritic limestone, calcarenite and wall paintings. A methodology combining several analysis techniques, phenomenological observations, salt and moisture analysis, environmental monitoring and thermodynamic simulations, was adopted in order to study the salt damage problems affecting this building. Within the collected samples, the majority of salts were found to be magnesium sulphate in the form of either hexahydrite or epsomite, depending on the climate conditions, together with minor amounts of gypsum, nitrates and chlorides. Comparison of empirical observations with thermodynamic simulations of the salt mixture behaviour clearly showed that salt-induced damage events take place during the seasonal changes from spring to summer and winter to spring. An aqueous solution of an organic phosphonate, which in laboratory experiments was found to be an effective inhibitor of magnesium sulphate crystallization, was sprayed over a selected test area of unpainted stonework at the site. Preliminary results seem to indicate that after the application of the treatment both the amount of efflorescence and ongoing damage to the stone support is reduced. However, long-term monitoring of the future condition of the test area is needed to confirm whether indeed this treatment is appropriate and effective in reducing salt damage at this case study site. The outcome of this study extends beyond the particular problems at San Jerónimo Monastery, as it demonstrates a methodological approach for the study and evaluation of salt weathering problems affecting cultural heritage.     

Crystallization of sodium sulfate salts in limestone

Crystallization pressure of salt crystals growing in confined pores is found to be the main cause for damage to stone and masonry. In this work, the crystallization of sodium sulfate salts in Cordova Cream and Indiana limestones is investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The DSC experiments indicate that sodium heptahydrate always precipitates prior to the decahydrate (mirabilite), at a temperature between 15 and 7°C in the selected stones. The threshold supersaturation for the nucleation of heptahydrate is less than 2. In constrast, mirabilite precipitates close to or below 0°C and its crystallization pattern is completely different: precipitation takes place abruptly when the threshold supersaturation is reached, which is greater than 7. Indeed, the DSC and the DMA experiments reveal the rare nature of the nucleation of mirabilite for the investigated stones. The crystallization pressure exerted by heptahydrate does not cause damage under the conditions of the cooling experiments. In contrast, mirabilite exerts a very high crystallization pressure on the pore wall causing damage of the stone; moreover, the transient stress can remain for a long period of time since the relaxation process is slow.