波浪作用下的床面切应力研究进展

波浪作用下的床面切应力是估算近岸泥沙起动、输移的重要基本参数之一,其形成的底部摩阻效应也会对近岸水动力环境产生影响。由于现场观测较为困难,对波浪边界层与波浪作用下床面切应力的认识主要建立在室内试验观测基础上。回顾国内外相关理论模型和试验测量研究,梳理各类研究方法与测量技术的优缺点及适用条件;整理20世纪70年代至今的大量试验资料,对已有研究成果进行归纳分析,包括波浪非线性、波浪破碎等因素对床面切应力的影响;总结现有研究存在的局限性,提出今后的研究重点。超大型水槽是未来突破波浪边界层理论研究瓶颈的重要设施;高适应性水下二维切应力传感器的发展是复杂动力条件下床面切应力研究取得突破的关键。     

Tidally-induced shear stress variability above intertidal mudflats in the macrotidal seine estuary

Tidal currents and the spatial variability of tidally-induced shear stress were studied during a tidal cycle on four intertidal mudflats from the fluvial to the marine part of the Seine estuary. Measurements were carried out during low water discharge (<400 m³ s⁻¹) in neap and spring tide conditions. Turbulent kinetic energy, covariance, and logarithmic profile methods were used and compared for the determination of shear stress. The c_TKE coefficient value of 0.19 cited in the literature was confirmed. Shear stress values were shown to decrease above mudflats from the mouth to the fluvial part of the estuary due to dissipation of the tidal energy, from 1 to 0.2 N m⁻² for spring tides and 0.8 to 0.05 N m⁻² for neap tides. Flood currents dominate tidally-induced shear stress in the marine and lower fluvial estuary during neap and spring tides and in the upper fluvial part during spring tides. Ebb currents control tidally-induced shear stress in the upper fluvial part of the estuary during neap tides. These results revealed a linear relationship between friction velocities and current velocities. Bed roughness length values were calculated from the empirical relationship given by Mitchener and Torfs (1996) for each site; these values are in agreement with the modes of the sediment particle-size distribution. The influence of tidal currents on the mudflat dynamics of the Seine estuary was examined by comparing the tidally-induced bed shear stress and the critical erosion shear stress estimated from bed sediment properties. Bed sediment resuspension induced by tidal currents was shown to occur only in the lower part of the estuary.     

A study on geotechnical characterization and stability of downstream slope of a tailings dam to improve its storage capacity (Turkey)

Tailings, waste products of the ore-dressing processes, are usually stored in a slurry form and pumped into sedimentation pond which is surrounded by natural heights and/or artificial walls. The database of International Commission of Large Dams and United Nations Environment Programme showed that several hundreds of tailings dam have failed since 1910. One of the reasons of these failures is slope instability. Construction of mine tailings dams in Turkey has started to increase, particularly in the recent decade. This paper focuses the study undertaken to assess the geotechnical characteristics and stability of downstream slope of a tailings dam at a copper-zinc mine in the Black Sea Region of Turkey. At the mine site there are two tailings dams located at two different elevations. The upper dam was completely filled and is out of service. Increasing amount of tailings filling the pond of the lower dam resulted in a limited storage, and therefore, it has been decided that heightening of the dam about 7 m to improve its storage facility would be necessary. For the purpose, a series of investigations in the vicinity of the tailings dam and some geomechanical laboratory tests were carried in conjunction with the use of empirical methods to determine mechanical properties of the current dam material, tailings and the rockfill material that will be used for heightening of the dam. The results of the static and pseudo-static stability analyses based on the methods of limit equilibrium and numerical modelling indicated that circular and non-circular failures are the most critical modes of failure for the dam and safety factor gradually decreases when the tailings rise up to a specific elevation in the pond. However, the ranges of the calculated safety factors from both methods are considerably similar and suitable for heightening of the dam by 7 m in terms of stability. The results suggest that any instability is not expected under both static and dynamic conditions after the current height of the tailings dam is increased by 7 m, if the slope geometry considered in the analyses is not changed and the tailings in the pond do not rise up to an elevation of about 475 m. In addition, magnitude of permanent settlement of the dam due to a probable earthquake was also assessed using two empirical methods and the results from both methods showed similar amount of settlements which were in tolerable limits.     

Liquefaction Hazard Assessment of Earth Quake Prone Area: a Study Based on Shear Wave Velocity by Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)

The shear wave velocity (V_S) profile based on the dispersive characteristics of fundamental mode of Rayleigh type surface waves indicate underground stiffness change with depth as well as near surface stiffness. The most important utility of shear wave velocity (V_S) is to estimate the liquefaction hazard potential of an area particularly in seismically active region. Rayleigh type surface waves were utilized to estimate the velocity (V_S) of shallow subsurface covering a depth range of 30–50 m employing multichannel analysis of surface waves. The liquefaction hazard map predicts an approximate percentage of an area that will have surface manifestation of liquefaction during an earth quake. The surface wave data acquired in an earth quake prone region of Jabalpur (Seismic zone III), India, yields a velocity (V_S) range of 200–750 m/s corresponding to the subsurface depth of 30–35 m. The results were analyzed for possible liquefaction hazard in the study area and presented here besides the N values.     

Threshold of motion and settling velocities of mollusc shell debris: Influence of faunal composition

Bioclastic particles derived from mollusc shell debris can represent a significant fraction of sandy to gravelly sediments in temperate and cool‐water regions with high carbonate productivity. Their reworking and subsequent transport and deposition by waves and currents is highly dependent on the shape and density of the particles. In this study, the hydrodynamic behaviour of shell debris produced by eight mollusc species is investigated for several grain sizes in terms of settling velocity (measurements in a settling tube) and threshold of motion under unidirectional current (flume experiments using an acoustic profiler). Consistent interspecific differences in settling velocity and critical bed shear stress are found, related to differences in shell density, shell structure imaged by scanning electron microscopy and grain shape. Drag coefficients are proposed for each mollusc species, based on an interpolation of settling velocity data. Depending on the shell species, the critical bed shear stress values obtained for bioclastic particles fall within or slightly below empirical envelopes established for siliciclastic particles, despite very low settling velocity values. The results suggest that settling velocity, often used to describe the entrainment of sediment particles through the equivalent diameter, is not a suitable parameter to predict the initiation of motion of shell debris. The influence of the flat shape of bioclastic particles on the initiation of motion under oscillatory flows and during bedload and saltation transport is yet to be elucidated.     

Impacts of a Wave Farm on Waves,Currents and Coastal Morphology in South West England

This study investigates impacts of a wave farm on waves, currents and coastal morphology adjacent to the wave farm, which is located in the Southwest of England (the Wave Hub). In this study, we focus on the interaction between waves and tides due to the presence of the wave farm and its effects on wave radiation stresses, bottom shear stresses and consequently on the sediment transport and the coast adjacent to the wave farm, using an integrated numerical modelling system. The modelling system consists of the near-shore wave model SWAN, the ocean circulation model ROMS and a sediment transport model for morphological evolution. The results show that tidal elevation and tidal currents can have a significant effect on waves and that tidal forcing and waves have a significant effect on bottom shear stresses. Waves can impact on the processes related to the bottom boundary layer and mixing intensity in the water column. The wave farm has an impact on the gradients of radiation shear stresses and bottom shear stresses that modify current speeds and wave heights, which in turn impact on the near-shore sediment transport and the resulting morphological changes. Bed load transport rates show a decrease when the wave farm is present, even during storm conditions. The results highlight the importance of the interactions between waves and tides when modelling coastal morphology with presence of wave energy devices.     

深水牵引流形成的床形单元组合

海底上发育深水牵引流形成的各种床形单元,包括等深岩丘及大型沉积物波在内的不同床形单元有规律地组合在一起,对于此类床形组合的确切形成机理,目前仍在探讨之中。本文经详细研究得出以下几点进展：① 运用内波理论可对海底上大型沉积物波各组成单元的成因作出较为合理的解释,向深海方向传播的内波可形成向上坡方向迁移的大型沉积物波;② 在等深流与上覆低密度水体之间的界面上具备产生大规模界面内波的条件;③ 某些底流成因的床形单元组合属于等深流与等深流所引发内波的联合作用的产物,首次提出了等深流－内波沉积组合的概念;④ 在现代海底上及古代地层记录中均发现了等深流－内波沉积组合的实例;⑤ 建立了一个古代地层记录中的深水牵引流沉积组合综合模式。     

有槽沙坝海岸交叉波浪作用下裂流特征

研究叠加波浪场作用下的裂流特征,有助于全面深入开展海岸裂流的致灾机理及风险评估。为分析水动力和水底地形共同作用下形成的裂流特征,开展了交叉叠加波浪作用下有槽沙坝海岸的裂流流动特征试验,即同时考虑沿岸地形变化（存在沟槽）和交叉波浪共同作用所形成裂流。通过对裂流槽附近ADV（Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry）流速测量结果,分析叠加波浪场和裂流沟槽同时存在时所产生的裂流分布特征。裂流中心位置和宽度受裂流槽和波浪节点共同控制,裂流长度依赖于波高和海岸坡度。无槽情况裂流的驱动力主要是由波浪沿岸不均匀所产生的平均水面沿岸压力梯度,有槽情况裂流的驱动力由平均水面沿岸压力梯度和辐射应力沿岸梯度共同决定,二者量值相对大小依赖于波浪周期。     

Threshold studies of gravel size particles under the co-linear combined action of waves and currents

Gravel size sediment beds are tested under the combined influence of simulated wave action and co-linear currents in a laboratory flume. Critical current speed, at threshold, increases with increasing size. Superimposed wave energy causes a small reduction in the unidirectional current energy. For low values of wave-induced near bed current velocities, the resistance to erosion increases when the wave period decreases from 10 to 6 s. Finally, combined critical shear stresses are found to be lower than those predicted using the Shields curve, as modified for oscillatory flow. Grain protrusion is suggested as a mechanism to explain this divergence.     

Estimating palaeobathymetry of wave-graded continental shelves from sediment texture

The concept of the wave-graded continental shelf, with sea floor sediment coarsening from offshore mud to shoreface sand, has been well known from the time of Johnson (1919) . Although most of the modern shelf shows textures unrelated to water depth on account of relict features or sediment starvation, the geological record is more likely to preserve sites where sediment is being fed to a subsiding inner-shelf. These consistently show the landward-coarsening pattern of the wave-graded shelf, recording past water depth history in accumulated sea floor sediment. The landward-coarsening pattern is driven primarily by wave-induced bed shear stress, which increases shoreward exponentially, although it also varies from place to place with wave climate, and can be influenced by sediment concentration and currents. In this study, the relationship between bed shear stress, sediment texture and water depth has been investigated by comparing per cent mud and wave climate data from shore-normal transects of three modern wave-graded coastal settings: Wellington Harbour (low energy) and the Manawatu coast (moderate energy) in New Zealand, and Monterey Bay in California (moderate–high energy). Samples from all three locations show a progressive change from poorly sorted mud offshore to well-sorted fine sand nearshore, with the sand–mud transition ranging from 3 m (low energy) to 50 m (moderate–high energy), reflecting differences in average bed shear. Repeat measurements of per cent mud on seasonal, annual and decadal time scales along a Manawatu coastal transect showed no measurable change, demonstrating equilibrium between sediment supply, wave energy, water depth and sediment texture. A simple model based on the relationship between wave climate, shear stress and per cent mud, and using data and conditions from the modern Manawatu coast, is applied to two mid-Pliocene cyclothems exposed 50 km inland, giving results comparable with estimates from foraminifera and the deep-sea isotope record. Per cent mud offers more detail for palaeobathymetric trends in shallow water shelf strata than other proxy depth recorders, although it is limited to depths above wave base and requires an independent estimate of wave climate if depths are to be quantified.     

Modelling and in-situ measurements of intense currents during a winter storm in the Gulf of Aigues-Mortes (NW Mediterranean Sea)

While oceanic circulation in the Gulf of Lion (GoL) has often been studied in calm weather or with northerly winds (Tramontane or Mistral) through observations and numerical circulation models, few studies have focused on southeasterly storm events. Yet, correct representation of the circulation during storms is crucial if the suspension of sediments is to be correctly modelled throughout the Gulf. The purpose of this paper is to describe the hydrodynamics in the Gulf of Aigues-Mortes (NW of the GoL) during the storm of 18 February 2007 by using a set of data from an ADCP station placed at a depth of 65 m on the sea bed off the coast at Sète, supplemented by the ocean circulation model SYMPHONIE. This storm was characterized by a moderate south-easterly wind (15 m . s^?1) and waves of up to 5 m of significant height at its apex. At the ADCP, strong currents of up to 0.8 m . s^?1 near the surface and 0.5 m . s^?1 near the bottom were recorded, parallel to the coast, flowing towards the south-west. The simulated currents were widely underestimated, even taking the effect of waves into account in the model. It was suspected that the representation of the wind in the atmospheric model was an underestimation. A new simulation was therefore run with an arbitrarily chosen stronger wind and its results were in much better agreement with the measurements. A simplified theoretical analysis successfully isolated the wind-induced processes, responsible for the strong currents measured during the apex and the strong vertical shear that occurred at the beginning of the storm. These processes were: 1/ the barotropic geostrophic current induced by a wind parallel to the coast and 2/ the Ekman spiral. The duration of the storm (about 36 h at the apex) explains the continuous increase of the current as predicted by the theory. The frictionally induced Ekman transport explains the current shear in the surface layer in the rising stage of the storm, and the addition of high waves and strong wind at the apex is more in favour of strong vertical mixing in the surface layer.     

Interaction of monsoonal wave, current and tide near Gopalpur, east coast of India, and their impact on beach profile: a case study

A 97-day-long record on waves and currents was obtained using wave rider buoy and current meter moored at 2.5 km off Gopalpur from 19 May to 23 August 2008 representing southwest monsoon months. A Valeport tide gauge was used to record water level at Gopalpur port. Simultaneously, beach profiles at 4 transects were monitored using real-time kinematic (RTK) global positioning system (GPS). A total of 636,167 waves were analyzed for the period; a range of 3,200–9,700 waves approach the coast in an individual day. During the study, unusual characteristics of wave were observed on July 29, 2008, with a magnitude of significant wave height, H_s = 2.85 m, maximum wave height, H_max = 5.22 m, and peak wave period, T_p = 10.2 s, and on August 11, 2008, with H_s = 2.28 m, H_max = 5.37 m, and T_p = 11.1 s. Significant beach loss was noticed during these periods, and severe erosion was recorded on August 1, 2008. Beach profile data indicates that 18–58 cu. m/m sediment was lost during the study period. The paper provides an overview of the statistical analysis of wave heights, periods, direction, and spectral energy density and explains the cause of coastal erosion and loss of sediment.     

Mechanical Testing in Unsaturated Soils

The state-of-the-art report presented herein is aimed at documenting, to the largest extent possible, some of the recent advances in laboratory testing of unsaturated soils for stress–strain–strength–stiffness characterization under suction-controlled isotropic, axisymmetric, and true triaxial stress states. The report is intended to be neither comprehensive nor fully inclusive, offering plenty of room for further discussion on recent refinements and techniques not yet reported in the literature. The main sections in this report are devoted to describing current methods and technologies using cylindrical triaxial systems, including advances in volume change measurements; resonant column/torsional shear systems; bender element-based systems; and suction-controlled testing under true triaxial stress states. Concluding remarks are included in the last section of the report.     

Aligned fractures in carbonate rocks: laboratory and in situ measurements of seismic anisotropy

By vertical seismic profiling and shear wave analysis we show that a packet of carbonate reservoir rocks, found at nearly 3000 m depth in the North German Basin, is seismically anisotropic. For vertical paths of wave propagation the estimated velocity difference of the split shear waves is 10%. No shear wave birefrigence is observed within the hangingwall which, therefore, has to be regarded as isotropic or transversely isotropic. Additional laboratory investigations of the petrography of drilled carbonate samples and of their seismic velocities show that the anisotropy is most probably caused by subvertical fractures with preferred azimuthal orientation. The strike direction of the aligned fractures determined by analysis of split shear waves is approximately N55°E. This value agrees with recently published directions of maximum horizontal tectonic stress in pre-Zechstein sediments in the eastern part of the North German Basin, but it is in contrast to the world stress map. Received: 20 April 1999 / Accepted: 25 August 1999     

Estimation of flow stresses in mylonitic quartzites of parts of Singhbhum shear zone,Bihar, eastern India

Recrystallized grain size was measured from quartzite mylonite specimens collected from parts of Singhbhum shear zone in eastern India. The specimens were collected along five traverses (Mushabani, Pathargora, Surda, Rakha and Jadugoda) across the elongation of the shear zone. The sheared quartzites range from protomylonite through mylonite to ultramylonite. The microstructural studies of the specimens reflect that dynamic recrystallization was the main deformation process. Estimation of flow stresses were derived from these specimens using empirical equations relating to flow stress and recrystallized grain size. The calculated stresses range from 12–28 MPa (Mercieret al 1977), 23–49 MPa (Twiss 1977), 20–68 MPa (Christie and Ord 1980), considering all the traverses. The results show that these values can only be used semiquantitatively.     

On the threshold of transport of sand-sized sediment under the combined influence of unidirectional and oscillatory flow

While the transport of sediment by unidirectional currents or by oscillatory (wave-induced) currents has been investigated, very little attention has been paid to the problem of the threshold of transport under the two mechanisms combined. Studies were carried out using cohesionless sand-sized (mean diameters: 142, 363, 771 and 1134 μm) quartz grains in a unidirectional flume, within which an oscillatory carriage had been installed. The experiments were carried out under unidirectional velocities ranging between 0 and 27 cm s^-1, combined with simulated wave-induced currents (at periods of 5 and 15 s) ranging from 0 to 35 cm s^-1. The threshold of transport was assessed, by visual observation, using the Yalin Criterion for unidirectional flow. This criterion permitted critical conditions to be estimated subjectively by observation of incipient transport from the flat beds. The results indicated the dependence of the critical threshold velocity combination on grain size and wave period. Thresholds tend to increase with increasing grain size or decreasing period. The grain-size dependence is predictable from existing empirical relationships for the separate mechanisms; statistical fluctuations in near-bed stress (bursting) however, are invoked to explain the wave period dependence. The latter effect acts in a reverse manner for wave and current combinations than for waves alone. Graphs are presented, relating grain size to critical threshold velocity combinations, to aid in the sedimentological interpretation of field data.     

Spatial distribution of trace elements in floodplain alluvium of the upper Blackfoot River,Montana

The Mike Horse Mine tailings dam in western Montana was partially breached in 1975 due to heavy rainfall and a failed drainage bypass. Approximately 90,000 tons of metal and arsenic-enriched tailings flowed into Beartrap Creek and the Blackfoot River. The spatial distribution of trace elements As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, and Zn in floodplain alluvium of the upper Blackfoot River were examined along 20 transects in the upper 105 river kilometers downstream from the tailings dam. Trace element concentrations decrease with distance from the failed dam, with As reaching background concentrations 15 km from the Mike Horse dam, Cd and Pb at 21 km, Cu at 31 km, and Mn and Zn at 37 km. Distance from the Mike Horse tailings dam and mine area is the dominating factor in explaining trace element levels, with R ² values ranging from 0.67 to 0.89. Maximum floodplain trace element concentrations in the upper basin exceed US. EPA ecological screening levels for plants, birds and other mammals, and reflect adverse hazard quotients for exposure to As and Mn for ATV/motorcycle use. Trace element concentrations in channel bank and bed alluvium are similar to concentrations in floodplain alluvium, indicating active transport of trace elements through the river and deposition on the floodplain. The fine fraction (<2 mm) of floodplain alluvium is dominated by sand-sized particles (2.0–0.05 mm), with Cu and Mn significantly correlated with silt-sized (0.05–0.002 mm) alluvium. Ongoing remediation in the headwaters area will not address metal contamination stored downstream in the channel banks and on the floodplain. Additionally, some trace elements (Cu, Mn and Zn) were conveyed farther downstream than were others (As, Cd, Pb).     

Mudbank regime off the Kerala coast during monsoon and non-monsoon seasons

Field experiments conducted in the nearshore ocean to understand the dynamics of mudbank off Kerala, south-west coast of India, are highlighted. Real time monitoring of the nearshore ocean off Purakkad, Kerala was accomplished using pressure transducers for nearshore surface wave measurements, and current sensors for nearshore velocity measurements. Comprehensive information on the spatial structure of mudbank was obtained from aerial surveys. Extensive data collected on surface waves and currents in the nearshore ocean, indicate that the infra-gravity (IG) waves (leaky modes and trapped edge wave modes), and far infra-gravity (FIG) waves coupled with strong shoreline reflections and undertow play an important role in the dynamics associated with the mudbanks off Kerala during the monsoon season. During the non-monsoon season evidence for progressive edge waves in the infragravity frequency band, an energetic gravity wave band and a strong undertow with weak reflections was observed.     

Shear wave splitting observations from the Indian shield

Measurements of shear wave splitting of the waveforms of SKS, SKKS phases recorded at all WWSSN stations (1977–1988) in the Indian shield located on diverse geotectonic units are used to retrieve the anisotropic properties of the sub-Continental lithosphere beneath these regions. The azimuth of fast polarization direction (FPD) ‘α’ and delay time ‘δt’ of the split shear waves with their uncertainties are estimated. Events well distributed in azimuth yield tightly constrained average splitting parameters of α, δt that are roughly:KOD (ENE. 0.50s); HYB (NNE, 145s); POO (N-S, 0.9s); NDI (NE, 0.95s). No consistent anisotropic direction was found at SHL, though the phenomenon of shear wave splitting was clearly observed. In order to test the utility of analog data to document such secondary effects and to authenticate our digitizing procedures, results from GEOSCOPE digital data at HYB were compared with analog data results from the same location. Presence of detectable anisotropy at all the stations is explained either in terms of past and present deformations by tectonic episodes or by plate motion related strain which forms the two end member models in interpreting the observed azimuthal anisotropy. Knowledge of surface geology and maximum horizontal compressive stress (MHS) orientations are invoked to constrain the most plausible hypothesis that explains the observed anisotropic signatures at each of these locations.