Area-Averaged Surface Fluxes Over the Litfass Region Based on Eddy-Covariance Measurements

Micrometeorological measurements (including eddy-covariance measurements of the surface fluxes of sensible and latent heat) were performed during the LITFASS-2003 experiment at 13 field sites over different types of land use (forest, lake, grassland, various agricultural crops) in a 20 × 20 km² area around the Meteorological Observatory Lindenberg (MOL) of the German Meteorological Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD). Significant differences in the energy fluxes could be found between the major land surface types (forest, farmland, water), but also between the different agricultural crops (cereals, rape, maize). Flux ratios between the different surfaces changed during the course of the experiment as a result of increased water temperature of the lake, changing soil moisture, and of the vegetation development at the farmland sites. The measurements over grass performed at the boundary-layer field site Falkenberg of the MOL were shown to be quite representative for the farmland part of the area. Measurements from the 13 sites were composed into a time series of the area-averaged surface flux by taking into account the data quality of the single flux values from the different sites and the relative occurrence of each surface type in the area. Such composite fluxes could be determined for about 80% of the whole measurement time during the LITFASS-2003 experiment. Comparison of these aggregated surface fluxes with area-averaged fluxes from long-range scintillometer measurements and from airborne measurements showed good agreement.     

Quantifying Turbulence Heterogeneity in a Vineyard Using Eddy-Covariance and Scintillometer Measurements

Boundary-Layer Meteorology - Scintillometry is a non-invasive measurement technique for acquiring spatially-averaged surface heat and moisture fluxes in areas where setting up arrays of instruments...     

应用通量方差法估算戈壁绿洲下垫面湍流通量的研究

利用“绿洲系统能量与水分循环过程观测试验” 2005年绿洲、戈壁点的观测资料, 分析与讨论了温度、水汽的归一化标准差随稳定度变化的通量方差关系, 应用通量方差法对感热、 潜热通量进行了计算, 并同涡动相关系统的观测结果进行了比较。不稳定条件下, 戈壁点温度归一化标准差随稳定度变化的通量方差关系优于下垫面非均匀性更强的绿洲点, 绿洲点水汽的归一化标准差随稳定度变化的通量方差关系较温度量表现得更好。对同一站点, 归一化温度标准差的通量方差关系并不总是优于水汽的通量方差关系, 其取决于该站点的温度以及水汽的源汇分布情况; 通量方差法对两个站点的感热、 潜热通量均有较好的再现, 但戈壁点感热通量的计算效果优于非均匀性更强的绿洲点。应用通量方差法对潜热通量计算时若采用直接观测的感热通量, 则潜热通量的计算效果具有一定程度的改善。     

A Variational Method for Estimating Near-Surface Soil Moisture and Surface Heat Fluxes

A variational data assimilation method is proposed to estimate the near-surface soil moisture and surface sensible and latent heat fluxes.The method merges the five parts into a cost function,i.e.,the differences of wind,potential temperature,anti specific humidity gradient between observations and those computed by the profile method,the difference of latent heat fluxes calculated using the ECMWF land surface evaporation scheme and the profile method,and a weak constraint for surface energy balance.By using an optimal algorithm,the best solutions are found.The method is tested with the data collected at Feixi Station (31.41°N,117.08°E) supported by the China Heavy Rain Experiment and Study (HeRES) during 7-30 June 2001.The results show that estimated near-surface soil moistures can quickly respond to rainfall,and their temporal variation is consistent with that of measurements of average soil moisture over 15-cm top depth with a maximum error less than 0.03 m~3 m~(-3).The surface heat fluxes calculated by this method are consistent with those by the Bowen ratio method,but at the same time it can overcome the instability problem occurring in the Bowen ratio method when the latter is about-1.Meanwhile,the variational method is more accurate than the profile method in terms of satisfying the surface energy balance.The sensitivity tests also show that the variational method is the most stable one among the three methods.     

SWAN系统QPE产品的误差统计及订正方法研究

利用SWAN系统QPE产品资料和自动站降水量,对甘肃省2010~2012年汛期QPE产品的应用效果进行检验。结果表明：QPE产品在0.1~0.9 mm降水量级上存在较小的高估,而在其它降水量级上均表现为低估,且随着降水量级的增加低估的越为明显;对于5.0 mm以下降水,QPE产品估测误差较小,平均误差〈2.0 mm,但对于〉5.0 mm降水会出现估测误差跃增现象,且随着降水强度的增加误差增大,估测产品的效果明显减弱;降水估测值命中率POD1在降水量〈2.5 mm区间效果较好,但随着降水量的增加其命中率迅速减小,而降水估测绝对误差命中率POD2对于〈10.0 mm降水的响应较好,同样地随着降水量的增加其命中率快速减小;海拔高度、经度和纬度是影响甘肃地区QPE产品误差的主要因子,利用影响降水分布较大的3个因子分别建立一元、多元加权回归方程,在此基础上对QPE产品进行订正,通过2012年的应用检验表明该方法对QPE产品的订正效果明显。     

南京夏季城郊湍流统计特性及湍流通量对比分析

利用2010年南京夏季城市热岛三维结构试验中的湍流观测资料,对南京市委党校和南京信息工程大学观测场2个观测点的湍流统计量和湍流通量进行了对比分析。结果表明：城市平均风速大于郊区;城郊2地的湍流强度都呈现出Ix〉Iy〉Iz的趋势,水平方向上的湍强城郊相差不大,而垂直方向上,郊区的Iz要明显低于城市;城、郊的风速归一化标准差σu/u＊、σv/u＊、σw/u＊都符合MoninObukhov相似理论的＂1/3＂定律,城市的垂直风速归一化标准差大于郊区,而水平方向上的风速归一化标准差则明显小于其他下垫面;郊区风速归一化标准差与常熟农田的拟合结果较为相似,而城市风速归一化标准差与长白山森林的拟合结果更为接近;夏季城市以感热通量为主,而郊区湍流能量的输送以潜热通量为主,且城市的湍流热通量受太阳辐射的影响更大。     

Effects of Averaging Period on Energy Fluxes and the Energy-Balance Ratio as Measured with an Eddy-Covariance System

The eddy-covariance method is an important technique for investigating the exchange of energy and substances between the atmosphere and an ecosystem. However, an inappropriate averaging period leads to inaccurate fluxes and a low energy-balance ratio (EBR). The effects of various averaging periods on fluxes and the EBR are analyzed using flux data from the entire growth stage of maize measured with an eddy-covariance system in northern China. We find that the relative error of the flux between an averaging period of 10–60 min and the commonly used averaging period of 30 min is within 3%. When the averaging period is between 10 and 60 min, the magnitudes of fluxes increase with the length of the averaging period at various growth stages. For averaging periods exceeding 60 min, the magnitudes of fluxes vary significantly, particularly for periods longer than 120 min. In general, \({ EBR} > 0.8\) in the maize field, tending to increase within periods of 10–60 min, but decreasing rapidly at various growth stages for averaging periods longer than 120 min. Ogive functions indicate an optimal averaging period of the seedling–shooting and shooting–heading stages is approximately 10–30 min, and that of the heading–filling and filling–maturity stages is 30–60 min.     

The Hurst Phenomenon in Error Estimates Related to Atmospheric Turbulence

The Hurst phenomenon is a well-known feature of long-range persistence first observed in hydrological and geophysical time series by E. Hurst in the 1950s. It has also been found in several cases in turbulence time series measured in the wind tunnel, the atmosphere, and in rivers. Here, we conduct a systematic investigation of the value of the Hurst coefficient H in atmospheric surface-layer data, and its impact on the estimation of random errors. We show that usually \(H > 0.5\), which implies the non-existence (in the statistical sense) of the integral time scale. Since the integral time scale is present in the Lumley–Panofsky equation for the estimation of random errors, this has important practical consequences. We estimated H in two principal ways: (1) with an extension of the recently proposed filtering method to estimate the random error (\(H_p\)), and (2) with the classical rescaled range introduced by Hurst (\(H_R\)). Other estimators were tried but were found less able to capture the statistical behaviour of the large scales of turbulence. Using data from three micrometeorological campaigns we found that both first- and second-order turbulence statistics display the Hurst phenomenon. Usually, \(H_R\) is larger than \(H_p\) for the same dataset, raising the question that one, or even both, of these estimators, may be biased. For the relative error, we found that the errors estimated with the approach adopted by us, that we call the relaxed filtering method, and that takes into account the occurrence of the Hurst phenomenon, are larger than both the filtering method and the classical Lumley–Panofsky estimates. Finally, we found that there is no apparent relationship between H and the Obukhov stability parameter. The relative errors, however, do show stability dependence, particularly in the case of the error of the kinematic momentum flux in unstable conditions, and that of the kinematic sensible heat flux in stable conditions.     

Turbulence Statistics Inside and Over Forest: Influence on Footprint Prediction

Observations of wind statistics within and above a Scots pine forest are comparedwith those predicted from an analytical second-order closure model. The roughnesssublayer (RSL) effects, and the influence of stability on similarity functions, arestudied using observations. The commonly accepted forms of similarity functionsdescribe the influence of diabatic effects above the RSL well. According to earlierstudies they are expected also to apply within the RSL. As an exception, the averagewind speed normalised with friction velocity was found to be invariant with stabilityclose to the canopy top under unstable conditions. Lagrangian stochastic trajectorysimulations were used to evaluate the influence of canopy turbulence profiles onfootprint prediction. The main uncertainty was found to arise from parameterisationof the random forcing term in the Lagrangian velocity equation. The influence ofdiabatic conditions was studied, and it was found that thermal stability affectssignificantly the footprint function above the forest canopy, but significantuncertainty exists because of uncertainties in the formulation of stability functions.     

Wind Gust and Turbulence Statistics of Typhoons in South China

The wind data of four typhoons were obtained and analyzed. The wind speeds were measured by sonic anemometers at four observation sites in Guangdong and Hainan provinces. Detailed analysis of the wind data was conducted to investigate the turbulence characteristics of the typhoons. Characteristics of the gust factor and the turbulence integral scale of the typhoons were concluded with high confidence. The relationships among the gust factor, gust duration time, mean wind speed, roughness length, and turbulence intensity were described. The turbulence integral scale was found to be closely related to the segment length and turbulence intensity.     

大气湍流的非线性动力学参量与其经典统计量之关系

本文利用大气边界层近地层中观测得的风和温度时间序列讨论计算了湍流的非线性动力学统计参量与其经典统计量的关系。初步结果表明:当层结稳定参数z/L处于-0.7相似文献   

Statistics of Turbulence in the Stable Boundary Layer Affected by Gravity Waves

In order to investigate effects of interactions between turbulence and gravity waves in the stable boundary layer on similarity theory relationships, we re-examined a dataset, collected during three April nights in 1978 and in 1980 on the 300-m tower of the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory (BAO). The BAO site, located in Erie, Colorado, USA, 30 km east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, has been known for the frequent detection of wave activities. The considered profiles of turbulent fluxes and variances were normalized by two local, gradient-based scaling systems, and subsequently compared with similarity functions of the Richardson number, obtained based on data with no influence of gravity currents and topographical factors. The first scaling system was based on local values of the vertical velocity variance $\sigma _\mathrm{w}$ and the Brunt–Väisäla frequency $ N,$ while the second one was based on the temperature variance $\sigma _{\theta }$ and $N.$ Analysis showed some departures from the similarity functions (obtained for data with virtually no influence of mesoscale motions); nonetheless the overall dependency of dimensionless moments on the Richardson number was maintained.     

The Effect of Chessboard Variability of the Surface Fluxes on the Aggregated Turbulence Fields in a Convective Atmospheric Surface Layer

To what degree the variability of surface features can be identified in the turbulent signals observed in the atmospheric boundary layer is still an unresolved problem. This was investigated by conducting an analytical experiment for a one-dimensional 'chessboard'-type surface-flux distribution on the basis of local free convection scaling. The results showed that, due to their nonlinear dependency on the surface fluxes, the dimensionless gradients of the mean quantities and the dimensionless standard deviations are altered by the surface-flux variability. Furthermore, passive scalars, such as humidity, are considerably more sensitive to surface variability than the main active scalar, temperature. However, the response of the gradients of the mean quantities is fairly negligible in the range of variability studied herein as compared to that of the standard deviations, which were found to be more sensitive to the surface-flux variability. In addition, the phase difference between the active and the passive scalar flux distribution strongly affects the passive scalar turbulence. This dissimilarity between passive and active scalars, or between passive scalars when their source distributions are different, brings into question the use of variance methods for the measurement of a scalar flux, such as evaporation, over variable surfaces. The classical Bowen ratio method, which depends on the validity of the Reynolds analogy for the vertical gradients of the mean quantities, was shown to be relatively more robust. However, under conditions of strong surface variability, it can also be expected to fail.     

数字滤波方法在月尺度数值预报中的应用Ⅰ.初始场滤波的作用

本工作将数字滤波方法用于Ｔ４２Ｌ９谱模式的月预报实验。为了去除高频扰动误差的影响，保留对月预报有意义且可预报性较强的低频过程，用滤波器对观测资料的序列进行处理，得到１０天以上的低频分量作为初始场进行预报。结果说明，与不进行滤波的控制实验相比，误差增长明显减慢，预报效果在１０～２０天时段内提高最显著。进一步分析表明，延伸预报效果随时间的变化主要是由其中低频分量的预报效果决定的。初始场滤波后预报效果的提高也主要是由于其低频分量报得更好，而在此低频背景下新产生出来的高频扰动误差也相应较小，因而总体的预报效果好于控制实验。而如果在控制实验预报后提取低频分量进行检验，则对逐日预报的改进不明显。经过初始场滤波后对１～１０天至１～３０天平均场的预报也有较显著的提高。对旬平均预报改进最大的是在第二个１０天。对５００ｈＰａ环流形势的预报也更接近实际。本工作的结果说明，在中长期预报中如果能用适当的方法提取出低频过程的信息，则可望提高预报水平     

数字滤波方法在月尺度数值预报中的应用 I. 初始场滤波的作用

本工作将数字滤波方法用于T42L9谱模式的月预报实验。为了去除高频扰动误差的影响，保留对月预报有意义且可预报性较强的低频过程，用滤波器对观测资料的序列进行处理，得到10天以上的低频分量作为初始场进行预报。结果说明，与不进行滤波的控制实验相比，误差增长明显减慢，预报效果在10～20天时段内提高最显著。进一步分析表明，延伸预报效果随时间的变化主要是由其中低频分量的预报效果决定的。初始场滤波后预报效果的提高也主要是由于其低频分量报得更好，而在此低频背景下新产生出来的高频扰动误差也相应较小，因而总体的预报效果好于控制实验。而如果在控制实验预报后提取低频分量进行检验，则对逐日预报的改进不明显。经过初始场滤波后对1～10天至1～30天平均场的预报也有较显著的提高。对旬平均预报改进最大的是在第二个10天。对500 hPa环流形势的预报也更接近实际。本工作的结果说明，在中长期预报中如果能用适当的方法提取出低频过程的信息，则可望提高预报水平。     

Effects of Temporal Discretization on Turbulence Statistics and Spectra in Numerically Simulated Convective Boundary Layers

Six state-of-the-art large-eddy simulation codes were compared in Fedorovich et al. (Preprints, 16th American Meteorological Society Symposium on Boundary Layers and Turbulence, 2004b) for three airflow configurations in order to better understand the effect of wind shear on entrainment dynamics in the convective boundary layer CBL). One such code was the University of Oklahoma large-eddy simulation (LES) code, which at the time employed a second-order leapfrog time-advancement scheme with the Asselin filter. In subsequent years, the code has been updated to use a third-order Runge–Kutta (RK3) time-advancement scheme. This study investigates what effect the upgrade from the leapfrog scheme to RK3 scheme has on turbulence statistics in the CBL differently affected by mean wind shear, also in relation to predictions by other LES codes that participated in the considered comparison exercise. In addition, the effect of changing the Courant number within the RK3 scheme is investigated by invoking the turbulence spectral analysis. Results indicate that low-order flow statistics obtained with the RK3 scheme generally match their counterparts from simulations with the leapfrog scheme rather closely. CBL growth rates due to entrainment in the shear-free case were also similar using both timestepping schemes. It was found, however, that care should be given to the choice of the Courant number value when running LES with the RK3 scheme in the sheared CBL setting. The advantages of the largest possible (based on the stability criterion) Courant number were negated by degrading the energy distribution across the turbulence spectrum. While mean profiles and low-order turbulence statistics were largely unaffected, the entrainment rate was over-predicted compared to that reported in the original code-comparison study.     

Quantifying the Influence of Random Errors in Turbulence Measurements on Scalar Similarity in the Atmospheric Surface Layer

The influence of random errors in turbulence measurements on scalar similarity for temperature, water vapour, \(\hbox {CO}_{2}\), and \(\hbox {NH}_{3}\) is investigated using two eddy-covariance datasets collected over a lake and a cattle feedlot. Three measures of scalar similarity, namely, the similarity constant in the flux–variance relationship, the correlation coefficient between two scalars and the relative transport efficiency, are examined. The uncertainty in the similarity constant \(C_{s}\) in the flux–variance relationship resulting from random errors in turbulence measurements is quantified based on error propagation analyses and a Monte-Carlo sampling method, which yields a distribution instead of a single value for \(C_{s}\). For different scalars, the distributions of \(C_{s}\) are found to significantly overlap, implying that scalars are transported similarly under strongly unstable conditions. The random errors in the correlation coefficients between scalars and the relative transport efficiencies are also quantified through error propagation analyses, and they increase as the atmosphere departs from neutral conditions. Furthermore, the correlation coefficients between three scalars (water vapour, \(\hbox {CO}_{2}\), and \(\hbox {NH}_{3}\)) are statistically different from unity while the relative transport efficiencies are not, which highlights the difference between these two measures of scalar similarity. The results suggest that uncertainties in these measures of scalar similarity need to be quantified when using them to diagnose the existence of dissimilarity among different scalars.     

Turbulent Flow Over Large Roughness Elements: Effect of Frontal and Plan Solidity on Turbulence Statistics and Structure

Wind-tunnel experiments were carried out on fully-rough boundary layers with large roughness (\(\delta /h \approx 10\), where h is the height of the roughness elements and \(\delta \) is the boundary-layer thickness). Twelve different surface conditions were created by using LEGO? bricks of uniform height. Six cases are tested for a fixed plan solidity (\(\lambda _\mathrm{P}\)) with variations in frontal density (\(\lambda _\mathrm{F}\)), while the other six cases have varying \(\lambda _\mathrm{P}\) for fixed \(\lambda _\mathrm{F}\). Particle image velocimetry and floating-element drag-balance measurements were performed. The current results complement those contained in Placidi and Ganapathisubramani (J Fluid Mech 782:541–566, 2015), extending the previous analysis to the turbulence statistics and spatial structure. Results indicate that mean velocity profiles in defect form agree with Townsend’s similarity hypothesis with varying \(\lambda _\mathrm{F}\), however, the agreement is worse for cases with varying \(\lambda _\mathrm{P}\). The streamwise and wall-normal turbulent stresses, as well as the Reynolds shear stresses, show a lack of similarity across most examined cases. This suggests that the critical height of the roughness for which outer-layer similarity holds depends not only on the height of the roughness, but also on the local wall morphology. A new criterion based on shelter solidity, defined as the sheltered plan area per unit wall-parallel area, which is similar to the ‘effective shelter area’ in Raupach and Shaw (Boundary-Layer Meteorol 22:79–90, 1982), is found to capture the departure of the turbulence statistics from outer-layer similarity. Despite this lack of similarity reported in the turbulence statistics, proper orthogonal decomposition analysis, as well as two-point spatial correlations, show that some form of universal flow structure is present, as all cases exhibit virtually identical proper orthogonal decomposition mode shapes and correlation fields. Finally, reduced models based on proper orthogonal decomposition reveal that the small scales of the turbulence play a significant role in assessing outer-layer similarity.     

Comparison of Measured and Numerically Simulated Turbulence Statistics in a Convective Boundary Layer Over Complex Terrain

The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model can be used to simulate atmospheric processes ranging from quasi-global to tens of m in scale. Here we employ large-eddy simulation (LES) using the WRF model, with the LES-domain nested within a mesoscale WRF model domain with grid spacing decreasing from 12.15 km (mesoscale) to 0.03 km (LES). We simulate real-world conditions in the convective planetary boundary layer over an area of complex terrain. The WRF-LES model results are evaluated against observations collected during the US Department of Energy-supported Columbia Basin Wind Energy Study. Comparison of the first- and second-order moments, turbulence spectrum, and probability density function of wind speed shows good agreement between the simulations and observations. One key result is to demonstrate that a systematic methodology needs to be applied to select the grid spacing and refinement ratio used between domains, to avoid having a grid resolution that falls in the grey zone and to minimize artefacts in the WRF-LES model solutions. Furthermore, the WRF-LES model variables show large variability in space and time caused by the complex topography in the LES domain. Analyses of WRF-LES model results show that the flow structures, such as roll vortices and convective cells, vary depending on both the location and time of day as well as the distance from the inflow boundaries.