陕西关中及周边地区近500a来初夏旱涝事件初步分析

基于华山树轮宽度差值年表重建的陕西关中及周边地区近500a来的初夏干燥指数序列,对该地区初夏极端旱涝事件及其连续旱涝变化特征进行了初步分析.区域干燥指数与Palmer指数在变化上极为相似,可用于反映该地区的旱涝变化.结果表明:该地区近500a来初夏共发生18次极端干旱事件和11次极端洪涝事件,除公元1521年与历史文献记录的旱涝事件相反,公元1513年、1574年、1675年和1945年未发现历史记录外,其余年份均能找到相应记录;近500a来初夏存在9个显著的连续偏旱期和10个显著的连续偏涝期,并以16和19世纪发生的连续旱涝事件最为频繁,而17和18世纪发生的旱涝事件相对较少,20世纪发生的干旱事件明显多于洪涝事件.     

Spatiotemporal drought variability in northwestern Africa over the last nine centuries

Changes in precipitation patterns and the frequency and duration of drought are likely to be the feature of anthropogenic climate change that will have the most direct and most immediate consequences for human populations. The latest generation of state-of-the-art climate models project future widespread drying in the subtropics. Here, we reconstruct spatially-complete gridded Palmer drought severity index values back to A.D. 1179 over Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The reconstructions provide long-term context for northwest African hydroclimatology, revealing large-scale regional droughts prior to the sixteenth century, as well as more heterogeneous patterns in sixteenth, eighteenth, and twentieth century. Over the most recent decades a shift toward dry conditions over the region is observed, which is consistent with general circulation model projections of greenhouse gas forced enhanced regional subtropical drought.     

North Atlantic oscillation control of droughts in north-east Spain: evaluation since 1600 a.d.

This paper analyses the role played by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the creation of drought conditions in a semi-arid region of north-east Spain (the middle Ebro valley), from 1600 to the year 2000. The study used documents from ecclesiastical archives for the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. For the twentieth century, instrumental precipitation records were used as well. A December–August drought index from 1600 to 1900 was compiled from the historical documentary sources (rogation ceremonies). The index was validated by means of precipitation records between 1858 and 1900 and independent precipitation data from 1600 reconstructed by means of dendrochronological records. Using instrumental data a drought index was also calculated (Standardized Precipitation Index, SPI) for the 1958–2000 period. We found that the NAO was important in explaining the droughts identified in the study area from documents and instrumental data. Positive values of the winter NAO index are prone to cause droughts in the middle Ebro valley. This finding has been verified since 1600 by means of two independent reconstructions of the winter NAO index. The same behaviour has been observed during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by means of instrumental records. The climatic and geographic factors that explain the high influence of North Atlantic Oscillation on droughts in this region are discussed in depth.     

The Case of the `Maldá' Anomaly in the Western Mediterranean Basin (AD 1760–1800): An Example of a Strong Climatic Variability

The study of climatic anomalies on the basis of various types of instrumental information and proxy-data allows unusual events to be identified. The objective of this paper is to introduce and explain a hydrometeorological anomaly that occurred between 1760 and 1800 (Maldá Anomaly), characterised by a sequence of both anomalous droughts and floods, and to compare it with the features of the second part of the 20th century. Firstly, some climatic indices obtained from proxy-data (mainly documentary sources) have been generated. Secondly, instrumental observations made in earlier times, in conjunction with data from the bibliography, have been used in order to relate this period to the different circulation patterns and to analyse the geographical extension of the anomaly. The results confirm the presence of considerable variations in the atmospheric action centres, especially between 1780 and 1795, which in the Western Mediterranean gave rise to a simultaneous increase in the frequency of droughts and heavy rainfalls, either having nothing comparable or sharing similarities with periods in the 19th and 20th centuries.     

IPCC AR6报告解读：水循环变化

水循环在全球和区域气候变化中扮演重要角色,与全球变暖背景下水循环变化密切相关的淡水资源短缺、副热带干旱区扩张、极端旱涝灾害频发等问题日益突出,严重制约生态系统和人类社会的可持续发展。在IPCC第六次评估报告中,第一工作组首次单独设立一章,即第八章,用于系统性评估全球水循环变化。评估显示,自20世纪中叶以来,人类活动已经显著地改变了全球水循环,包括大气湿度和降水强度的整体性增加,全球干旱模态改变,南半球风暴轴向极地移动等。已经发生的水循环变化受到温室气体、气溶胶、土地利用在内的多种人类强迫的影响,而未来全球水循环变化将逐渐由温室气体主导。     

The regional forcing of Northern hemisphere drought during recent warm tropical west Pacific Ocean La Niña events

Northern Hemisphere circulations differ considerably between individual El Niño-Southern Oscillation events due to internal atmospheric variability and variation in the zonal location of sea surface temperature forcing over the tropical Pacific Ocean. This study examines the similarities between recent Northern Hemisphere droughts associated with La Niña events and anomalously warm tropical west Pacific sea surface temperatures during 1988–1989, 1998–2000, 2007–2008 and 2010–2011 in terms of the hemispheric-scale circulations and the regional forcing of precipitation over North America and Asia during the cold season of November through April. The continental precipitation reductions associated with recent central Pacific La Niña events were most severe over North America, eastern Africa, the Middle East and southwest Asia. High pressure dominated the entire Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes and weakened and displaced storm tracks northward over North America into central Canada. Regionally over North America and Asia, the position of anomalous circulations within the zonal band of mid-latitude high pressure varied between each La Niña event. Over the northwestern and southeastern United States and southern Asia, the interactions of anomalous circulations resulted in consistent regional temperature advection, which was subsequently balanced by similar precipitation-modifying vertical motions. Over the central and northeastern United States, the spatial variation of anomalous circulations resulted in modest inter-seasonal temperature advection variations, which were balanced by varying vertical motion and precipitation patterns. Over the Middle East and eastern Africa, the divergence of moisture and the advection of dry air due to anomalous circulations enhanced each of the droughts.     

The climate of crete in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

The climatic history of the eastern Mediterranean has been neglected; that of Crete is selected for initial investigation. The principal characteristics of twentieth century climate are surveyed. The most important documentary sources for the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are introduced, their potentialities discussed and examples of documentary evidence given. Detailed consideration is given to the period 1548 to 1648, and its main climatic features tabulated. In some years, and groups of years, weather conditions occurred which were apparently anomalous by twentieth century standards, especially winter and spring droughts, exceptionally severe winters, and summer rain. Specific cases are discussed. Some winter droughts were longer-lasting and more extreme than any since instrumental measurements began. These could affect wide regions and are taken to have been caused by the extension of southerly air masses from the Sahara. The incidence of severe winters leads to consideration of evidence for snowfall having been heavier and longer lasting than in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Deluges seem to have been similar in intensity to twentieth century storm events, but some may have been more extreme and extended more widely. Records of summer rains were found to be rare compared with those of winter drought and severe winters. The period under review was one in which northern and central Europe experienced individual years and clusters of years in which weather conditions departed strongly from twentieth century means. It is surmised that climatic anomalies, which did not necessarily occur simultaneously in the eastern and western Mediterranean, were associated with low index situations, that is with weak circumpolar westerlies, and with blocking highs further north in Europe, causing diversion of depression tracks.     

Assessing Global Warming Induced Changes in Summer Rainfall Variability over Eastern China Using the Latest Hadley Centre Climate Model HadGEM3-GC2

Summer precipitation anomalies over eastern China are characterized spatially by meridionally banded structures fluctuating on interannual and interdecadal timescales,leading to regional droughts and floods.In addition to long-term trends,how these patterns may change under global warming has important implications for agricultural planning and water resources over this densely populated area.Using the latest Hadley Centre climate model,Had GEM3-GC2,this paper investigates the potential response of summer precipitation patterns over this region,by comparing the leading modes between a 4×CO_2 simulation and the model's pre-industrial control simulation.Empirical Orthogonal Function(EOF) analyses show that the first two leading modes account for about 20% of summer rainfall variability.EOF1 is a monopole mode associated with the developing phase of ENSO events and EOF2 is a dipole mode associated with the decaying phase of ENSO.Under 4×CO_2 forcing,the dipole mode with a south–north orientation becomes dominant because of a strengthened influence from excessive warming of the Indian Ocean.On interdecadal time scales,the first EOF looks very different from the control simulation,showing a dipole mode of east–west contrast with enhanced influence from high latitudes.     

ENSO signals in South America: rains and floods in the Paraná River region during colonial times

Several studies show that the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an important factor in determining interannual rainfall variability in South America. This signal is detected in the region including Northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and part of southern Brazil, in the form of excessive rains and big floods in the regional rivers. To check that this relationship was similar in the past the objectives of this paper were to construct a time series of large floods in the Paraná River region from documentary records, during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, and to evaluate the relationship between that historical record of extreme floods, the ENSO documentary evidence (Ortlieb, The Documented Historical Record of El Niño Events in Perú: An Update of the Quinn Record (Ortlieb, sixteenth through nineteenth centuries, Diaz and Markgraf, (eds.), El Niño and the southern oscillation. Multiscale variability and global and regional Impacts. Cambridge University Press, pp. 207–295, 2001; Quinn and Neal, The historical record of El Niño events, Bradley and Jones (eds.), Climate since a.d. 1500, Routledges, pp. 623–648, 1992) and the temperature index of the Pacific Ocean (Mann ME et al., Global temperature patterns in past centuries: an interactive presentation, IGBP pages/world data center for paleoclimatology data contribution series #2000-075. NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder CO, USA, 2000). Considering that the period 1904–2000, where 11 out of 16 floods occurred during El Niño events, it can be concluded that the proportion of years with exceptional flow volume in the Paraná River in years with El Niño events in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was relatively lower than that of the twentieth century. The reason for this difference is discussed.     

Climate variability and projected change in the western United States: regional downscaling and drought statistics

Climate change in the twenty-first century, projected by a large ensemble average of global coupled models forced by a mid-range (A1B) radiative forcing scenario, is downscaled to Climate Divisions across the western United States. A simple empirical downscaling technique is employed, involving model-projected linear trends in temperature or precipitation superimposed onto a repetition of observed twentieth century interannual variability. This procedure allows the projected trends to be assessed in terms of historical climate variability. The linear trend assumption provides a very close approximation to the time evolution of the ensemble-average climate change, while the imposition of repeated interannual variability is probably conservative. These assumptions are very transparent, so the scenario is simple to understand and can provide a useful baseline assumption for other scenarios that may incorporate more sophisticated empirical or dynamical downscaling techniques. Projected temperature trends in some areas of the western US extend beyond the twentieth century historical range of variability (HRV) of seasonal averages, especially in summer, whereas precipitation trends are relatively much smaller, remaining within the HRV. Temperature and precipitation scenarios are used to generate Division-scale projections of the monthly palmer drought severity index (PDSI) across the western US through the twenty-first century, using the twentieth century as a baseline. The PDSI is a commonly used metric designed to describe drought in terms of the local surface water balance. Consistent with previous studies, the PDSI trends imply that the higher evaporation rates associated with positive temperature trends exacerbate the severity and extent of drought in the semi-arid West. Comparison of twentieth century historical droughts with projected twenty-first century droughts (based on the prescribed repetition of twentieth century interannual variability) shows that the projected trend toward warmer temperatures inhibits recovery from droughts caused by decade-scale precipitation deficits.     

Toward Understanding the Extreme Floods over Yangtze River Valley in June?July 2020: Role of Tropical Oceans※

The extreme floods in the Middle/Lower Yangtze River Valley (MLYRV) during June?July 2020 caused more than 170 billion Chinese Yuan direct economic losses. Here, we examine the key features related to this extreme event and explore relative contributions of SST anomalies in different tropical oceans. Our results reveal that the extreme floods over the MLYRV were tightly related to a strong anomalous anticyclone persisting over the western North Pacific, which brought tropical warm moisture northward that converged over the MLYRV. In addition, despite the absence of a strong El Ni?o in 2019/2020 winter, the mean SST anomaly in the tropical Indian Ocean during June?July 2020 reached its highest value over the last 40 years, and 43％ (57％) of it is attributed to the multi-decadal warming trend (interannual variability). Based on the NUIST CFS1.0 model that successfully predicted the wet conditions over the MLYRV in summer 2020 initiated from 1 March 2020 (albeit the magnitude of the predicted precipitation was only about one-seventh of the observed), sensitivity experiment results suggest that the warm SST condition in the Indian Ocean played a dominant role in generating the extreme floods, compared to the contributions of SST anomalies in the Maritime Continent, central and eastern equatorial Pacific, and North Atlantic. Furthermore, both the multi-decadal warming trend and the interannual variability of the Indian Ocean SSTs had positive impacts on the extreme floods. Our results imply that the strong multi-decadal warming trend in the Indian Ocean needs to be taken into consideration for the prediction/projection of summer extreme floods over the MLYRV in the future.     

Exceptional drought events over eastern China during the last five centuries

Climate extremes, particularly the droughts sustaining over a prolonged period and affecting extended area (defined as “exceptional drought events”), can have long-lasting effects on economic and social activities. Here we use the Chinese drought/flood proxy data of the past five hundred years to identify the cases of exceptional drought events over eastern China (east of 105°E), and to study their spatial patterns and temporal evolutions. The associated circulations for the contemporary case are analyzed using available meteorological data. Possible linkage of these cases to climatic forcing and natural climate events is also explored. After considering the intensity, duration, and spatial coverage, we identified three exceptional drought events, which occurred in 1586–1589, 1638–1641, and 1965–1966 in chronological order. They were the most severe droughts of last five centuries in eastern China, with more than 40% of affected area and the drought center encountered a significant summer rainfall reduction (about 50% or more). These three droughts all developed first in North China (34–40°N), and then either expanded southward or moved to the Yangtze River Valley (27–34°N) and the northern part of the southeastern coastal area (22–27°N). For the 1965–1966 case, the significant reduction of summer precipitation was caused by a weakening of summer monsoon and an anomalous westward and northward displacement of the western Pacific subtropical high. Our analyses also suggest that these three exceptional drought events might be triggered by large volcanic eruptions and amplified by both volcanic eruptions and El Niño events.     

Hierarchical evaluation of IPCC AR4 coupled climate models with systematic consideration of model uncertainties

The capability of reproducing observed surface air temperature (SAT) changes for the twentieth century is assessed using 22 multi-models which contribute to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. A Bayesian method is utilized for model evaluation by which model uncertainties are considered systematically. We provide a hierarchical analysis for global to sub-continental regions with two settings. First, regions of different size are evaluated separately at global, hemispheric, continental, and sub-continental scales. Second, the global SAT trend patterns are evaluated with gradual refinement of horizontal scales (higher dimensional analysis). Results show that models with natural plus anthropogenic forcing (MME_ALL) generally exhibit better skill than models with anthropogenic only forcing (MME_ANTH) at all spatial scales for different trend periods (entire twentieth century and its first and second halves). This confirms previous studies that suggest the important role of natural forcing. For the second half of the century, we found that MME_ANTH performs well compared to MME_ALL except for a few models with overestimated warming. This indicates not only major contributions of anthropogenic forcing over that period but also the applicability of both MMEs to observationally-constrained future predictions of climate changes. In addition, the skill-weighted averages with the Bayes factors [Bayesian model averaging (BMA)] show a general superiority over other error-based weighted averaging methods, suggesting a potential advantage of BMA for climate change predictions.     

Toward Understanding the Extreme Floods over Yangtze River Valley in June?July 2020: Role of Tropical Oceans※

The extreme floods in the Middle/Lower Yangtze River Valley (MLYRV) during June?July 2020 caused more than 170 billion Chinese Yuan direct economic losses. Here, we examine the key features related to this extreme event and explore relative contributions of SST anomalies in different tropical oceans. Our results reveal that the extreme floods over the MLYRV were tightly related to a strong anomalous anticyclone persisting over the western North Pacific, which brought tropical warm moisture northward that converged over the MLYRV. In addition, despite the absence of a strong El Ni?o in 2019/2020 winter, the mean SST anomaly in the tropical Indian Ocean during June?July 2020 reached its highest value over the last 40 years, and 43％ (57％) of it is attributed to the multi-decadal warming trend (interannual variability). Based on the NUIST CFS1.0 model that successfully predicted the wet conditions over the MLYRV in summer 2020 initiated from 1 March 2020 (albeit the magnitude of the predicted precipitation was only about one-seventh of the observed), sensitivity experiment results suggest that the warm SST condition in the Indian Ocean played a dominant role in generating the extreme floods, compared to the contributions of SST anomalies in the Maritime Continent, central and eastern equatorial Pacific, and North Atlantic. Furthermore, both the multi-decadal warming trend and the interannual variability of the Indian Ocean SSTs had positive impacts on the extreme floods. Our results imply that the strong multi-decadal warming trend in the Indian Ocean needs to be taken into consideration for the prediction/projection of summer extreme floods over the MLYRV in the future.     

Simple indices of global climate variability and change Part II: attribution of climate change during the twentieth century

Five simple indices of surface temperature are used to investigate the influence of anthropogenic and natural (solar irradiance and volcanic aerosol) forcing on observed climate change during the twentieth century. These indices are based on spatial fingerprints of climate change and include the global-mean surface temperature, the land-ocean temperature contrast, the magnitude of the annual cycle in surface temperature over land, the Northern Hemisphere meridional temperature gradient and the hemispheric temperature contrast. The indices contain information independent of variations in global-mean temperature for unforced climate variations and hence, considered collectively, they are more useful in an attribution study than global mean surface temperature alone. Observed linear trends over 1950–1999 in all the indices except the hemispheric temperature contrast are significantly larger than simulated changes due to internal variability or natural (solar and volcanic aerosol) forcings and are consistent with simulated changes due to anthropogenic (greenhouse gas and sulfate aerosol) forcing. The combined, relative influence of these different forcings on observed trends during the twentieth century is investigated using linear regression of the observed and simulated responses of the indices. It is found that anthropogenic forcing accounts for almost all of the observed changes in surface temperature during 1946–1995. We found that early twentieth century changes (1896–1945) in global mean temperature can be explained by a combination of anthropogenic and natural forcing, as well as internal climate variability. Estimates of scaling factors that weight the amplitude of model simulated signals to corresponding observed changes using a combined normalized index are similar to those calculated using more complex, optimal fingerprint techniques.     

Sensitivity of discharge and flood frequency to twenty-first century and late Holocene changes in climate and land use (River Meuse,northwest Europe)

We used a calibrated coupled climate–hydrological model to simulate Meuse discharge over the late Holocene (4000–3000 BP and 1000–2000 AD). We then used this model to simulate discharge in the twenty-first century under SRES emission scenarios A2 and B1, with and without future land use change. Mean discharge and medium-sized high-flow (e.g. Q₉₉) frequency are higher in 1000–2000 AD than in 4000–3000 BP; almost all of this increase can be attributed to the conversion of forest to agriculture. In the twentieth century, mean discharge and the frequency of medium-sized high-flow events are higher than in the nineteenth century; this increase can be attributed to increased (winter half-year) precipitation. Between the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, anthropogenic climate change causes a further increase in discharge and medium-sized high-flow frequency; this increase is of a similar order of magnitude to the changes over the last 4,000 years. The magnitude of extreme flood events (return period 1,250-years) is higher in the twenty-first century than in any preceding period of the time-slices studied. In contrast to the long-term influence of deforestation on mean discharge, changes in forest cover have had little effect on these extreme floods, even on the millennial timescale.     

Precipitation extremes in the Yangtze River Basin,China: regional frequency and spatial–temporal patterns

Regional frequency analysis and spatial–temporal patterns of precipitation extremes are investigated based on daily precipitation data covering 1960–2009 using the index-flood L-moments method together with some advanced statistical tests and spatial analysis techniques. The results indicate that: (1) the entire Yangtze River basin can be divided into six homogeneous regions in terms of extreme daily precipitation index. Goodness-of-fit test indicates that Pearson type III (PE3, three parameters), general extreme-value (GEV, three parameters), and general normal (GNO, three parameters) perform well in fitting regional precipitation extremes; (2) the regional growth curves for each homogeneous region with 99 % error bands show that the quantile estimates are reliable enough and can be used when return periods are less than 100 years, and the results indicate that extreme precipitation events are highly probable to occur in regions V and VI, and hence higher risk of floods and droughts; and (3) spatial patterns of annual extreme daily precipitation with return period of 20 years indicate that precipitation amount increases gradually from the upper to the lower Yangtze River basin, showing higher risks of floods and droughts in the middle and lower Yangtze River basin, and this result is in good agreement with those derived from regional growth curves.     

An assessment of Canadian prairie drought: past, present, and future

Within Canada, the Canadian Prairies are particularly drought-prone mainly due to their location in the lee of the western cordillera and distance from large moisture sources. Although previous studies examined the occurrence of Canadian Prairie droughts during instrumental, pre-instrumental and to a lesser extent, future periods, none have specifically focused on all time three scales. Using two different drought indicators, namely the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), this investigation assesses the variability of summer drought duration and intensity over a core region of the Prairies during (a) the pre-instrumental record extending back several centuries (inferred from tree rings), (b) the instrumental record (1901–2005), and (c) the twenty-first century using statistically downscaled climate variables from several Atmosphere–Ocean Global climate models with multiple emission scenarios. Results reveal that observed twentieth century droughts were relatively mild when compared to pre-settlement on the Prairies, but these periods are likely to return (and even worsen) in the future due to the anticipated warming during the course of the twenty-first century. However, future drought projections are distinctly different between the two indices. All PDSI-related model runs show greater drought frequency and severity mainly due to increasing temperatures. Conversely, the precipitation-based SPI indicates no significant changes to future summer drought frequency although there tends to be a higher persistence of multi-year droughts in central and southern portions of Canadian Prairies. These findings therefore stress the importance of considering anticipated warming trends when assessing future regional-scale drought, especially given the uncertainties and lack of consistency in future precipitation signals among climate models. This study can be considered an initial step toward quantifying and understanding Canadian Prairie drought occurrence and severity over several centuries as determined from paleo, instrumental, and climate model data sources.     

Trends in flood seasonality of the River Ouse (Northern England) from archive and instrumental sources since AD 1600

The last decade has witnessed an increase in the application of historical records (historical and documentary) in developing a more complete understanding of high-magnitude flood frequency; but little consideration has been given to the additional information that documentary accounts contain, particularly relating to flood seasonality. This paper examines the methods and approaches available in long-term flood seasonality analysis and applies them to the River Ouse (Yorkshire) in Northern England since AD 1600. A detailed historical flood record is available for the City of York consisting of annual maxima flood levels since AD 1877, with documentary accounts prior to this. A detailed analysis of long-term flood seasonality requires confidence in the accuracy and completeness of flood records; as a result the augmented flood series are analysed using three strategies: firstly, considering all recorded floods since AD 1600; secondly, through detailed analysis of the more complete record since AD 1800; and finally, applying a threshold to focus on high-magnitude flood events since AD 1800. The results identify later winter flooding, particularly in the second half of the twentieth century, with a notable reduction in summer flood events at York during the twentieth century compared to previous centuries. Flood generating mechanisms vary little between the periods considered, with a general pattern of stability in the ratio of floods incorporating a snowmelt component.     

长江流域、华北降水特征与南亚高压的关系分析

利用多年月平均气象场再分析资料和中国月平均降水资料,研究了长江流域和华北地区的典型旱涝年降水与南亚高压的关系,发现两地区的典型旱涝现象与南亚高压的异常增强或减弱、中心位置的经纬度偏差均有关。南亚高压异常增强,易造成长江流域涝、华北地区旱;南亚高压异常减弱,易造成长江流域旱、华北地区涝。同时发现、长江流域、华北地区的典型旱涝现象具有明显的反位相特征。