The artefacts from the present land surface at the Palaeolithic site of Warren Hill,Suffolk, England

Over 2000 handaxes located in museum collections point to the archaeological importance of Warren Hill, a Lower Palaeolithic site in the path of the pre-Anglian Bytham River in East Anglia that was worked for gravel until about 1950. Yet apart from the initial report by Solomon (1933), detailed archaeological study was not undertaken until 2002. This report describes the surface fieldwalking carried out from 1964 to the time of the 2002 excavations, during which over 400 Palaeolithic artefacts have been recovered. Over 92% of these are flakes, some retouched, thus redressing the bias towards handaxes in the museum collections, and suggesting that flake tools played a major role in Lower Palaeolithic daily life. Also represented are notched pieces, scrapers, cores and a few Neolithic flakes. The surface comprises a lag deposit in which artefacts are concentrated in two main zones, contrasting with the subsurface material which is sparse and well-spread through the lithostratigraphy. The Palaeolithic artefacts are mostly rolled and edge-damaged, and patination is variable, suggesting a complex history. The two types of handaxe noted by Solomon – crude and fine – are confirmed. The preservation of typological integrity amongst surface finds that appear to lie in the path of a major fluvial feature is either a relic of humanly assembled, pre-Anglian bankside clusters eroded into the stream, or it may signal the arrival of post-Anglian humans who discovered a lag deposit rich in artefacts and flint clasts and proceeded to use, resharpen and re-arrange them. The dense clustering noted at Warren Hill is placed in a world context. Amongst the surface gravels an assemblage of flakes together with early 20th century rubbish was discovered; it is interpreted as a collector's dump of unsaleable artefacts.     

San Quirce (Palencia,Spain): new chronologies for the Lower to Middle Palaeolithic transition of south-west Europe

San Quirce is an open-air archaeological site situated on a fluvial terrace in the Duero basin (Palencia, northern Iberia). This paper presents new and consistent chronologies obtained for the sedimentary sequence using post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIR-IR) dating of K-feldspars and single-grain thermally transferred optically stimulated luminescence (TT-OSL) dating of quartz. The new dating results indicate that the sequence is older than ~200 000 years and place San Quirce Level III within marine isotope stages (MIS) 8 and 7, between 274 ± 13 ka and 238 ± 13 ka. The main lithic assemblage at San Quirce comes from Level III. The predominant tool types found in this level are hammerstones, manuports and flakes, with a small proportion of cores and a significant presence of denticulates. Adaptation to local environmental conditions resulted in distinctive cultural habits, which were embedded in the cultural tradition of hominins occupying the site during the final third of the Middle Pleistocene. San Quirce preserves a simple cultural tradition that was employed by local hominins to engage in a diverse array of activities, and highlights the cultural diversity that appears to have been a characteristic feature of the Lower to Middle Palaeolithic transition 300–200 ka.     

Intra-interstadial environmental changes in Last Glacial loess revealed by molluscan assemblages from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Amiens-Renancourt 1 (Somme,France)

The Amiens-Renancourt 1 site recently yielded one of the most important Upper Palaeolithic human occupations of northern France by the number of flint artefacts and especially by the presence of Venus figurines. All the material comes from a single archaeological layer located in a tundra gley bracketed by loess units. A multi-proxy study combining a detailed stratigraphy, luminescence and radiocarbon datings and high-resolution (5 cm per sample) grain size and molluscan analyses was therefore carried out to reconstruct and date the associated environmental changes and to determine the exact context of the human occupation. The chronological frame thus established supports the correlations of the archaeology-bearing tundra gley and of an underlying arctic brown soil with Greenland interstadials GI-4 and GI-3. Composition changes in the molluscan population enabled the identification of transitional and optimum phases and sub-phases within these two pedogenetic horizons. A conceptual correlation model linking molluscan phases with millennial-scale variations of Greenland ice-core and Sieben Hengste speleothem climate records is proposed. The Human occupation appears contemporaneous to the end of the stadial–interstadial transition of GI-3. Synchronous in Amiens-Renancourt 1 and Nussloch, subsequent micro-gleys may also result from a regional/global forcing. Such a level of detail is unprecedented in a loess sequence.     

Active tectonics,seismicity and geomorphology with special reference to Normandy (France)

Integrated studies based on tectonic, seismotectonic and geomorphological analyses indicate that Normandy (northwest France) has been an active area during the Quaternary. Topography and landform discontinuities reflect the dislocation and differential uplift of a late Cenozoic platform. The tectonic activity is represented by (i) active faults, indicated by linear scarps and seismic activity, (ii) offsetting of pre‐existing surfaces, (iii) Plio‐Pleistocene sedimentation restricted within narrow subsiding zones, and (iv) morphometric properties of drainage basins that indicate zones of differential uplift. The inferred strain pattern involves (i) a shortening direction that strikes NW–SE as expected in the European context of Alpine compression, and (ii) a NE–SW trending extension accommodated by NW–SE normal faults. The geomorphological systems encountered in Normandy preferentially record differential vertical displacements. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A case study in surface mining simulation with special reference to the problem of model evaluation

Summary This paper discusses the framework for modelling and analysing the materials handling aspects of a conventional contour mine as related to the smaller to medium-size coal mining companies. Special emphasis is placed on model evaluation. The methodology employed consists of: (a) using the surface geometry of the area to be stripped for developing the equations that are used for analysing the critical factors affecting pit layout, (b) effecting engineering and graphical layout of the mine, (c) collecting — through time studies — and analysing equipment characteristic data, (d) constructing the model, and (e) evaluating the model. The results show that the graphical approach for model construction and evaluation is fast, accurate, and reliable.     

Urbanization and desertification in the Sudan with special reference to Khartoum

Urbanization-desertification interactions in the arid zones of the Sudan represent a challenge for future management planners. Desertification leads to a considerable movement into the towns, thereby encouraging the urbanization process. However, due to the large pull effect of large urban centres which are limited in number and unevenly distributed over the area, most of the migration is oriented towards them. This tendency is strengthened, furthermore, by the present planning trends of growth pole centres. The result is overcrowding, negative over-urbanization diseconomies and more pressure on the natural resources in the immediate hinterland, thus further accelerating the desertification process. Some examples are given in the paper to show how the rapid increase of urban population and the rapid growth of urban centres have reflected themselves in difficulties in procuring wood fuel or naturally grown raw materials for traditional and small urban industries. The specific example of Khartoum, the largest urban centre in the Sudan with the highest rate of growth is treated in detail to show how rapid urbanization processes would result in intensified desert conditions and how ecological interactions and effects would be faster and more serious in a more vulnerable ecological location.     

A preliminary report on the Stanton Harcourt Channel Deposits (Oxfordshire,England): geological context,vertebrate remains and palaeolithic stone artefacts

A summary is given of the geological, faunal and archaeological information obtained during excavations in the Stanton Harcourt Channel Deposits from 1990 to 1995. The channel deposits underlie the ‘cold-climate’ Stanton Harcourt Gravel Member of the Summertown– Radley Terrace Formation. The Channel sediments are attributed to Oxygen Isotope Stage 7, when the Thames was undergoing down-dip migration and eroding the Weymouth Member of the Oxford Clay (Upper Jurassic), the contemporary Jurassic (Corallian) escarpment being near to Stanton Harcourt at that time. Abundant large vertebrate remains have been recovered, mainly from the base of the Channel deposits, where a cobble and boulder bed rests on thin silt or sand horizons or in scour hollows in the clay bedrock. Smaller bones occur throughout the deposits, which are mainly poorly sorted gravels, but especially at erosive horizons. Several palaeolithic artefacts have been found in the same contexts; many of the bones and some of the artefacts appear not to have been transported far. Although the artefacts cannot be linked directly with the bones, a study of them adds to our knowledge of the Middle Pleistocene human settlement of the Upper Thames Valley. It is of interest that mammoth is abundant as part of the interglacial faunal assemblage, and the significance of this is discussed. The environment clearly included substantial areas of open grassland, although there was also some forest in the vicinity. Evidence appears to be accumulating for important faunal and floral differences between particular interglacial events during the British Middle and Late Pleistocene.     

Geoarchaeology of Pleistocene open-air sites in the Vila Nova da Barquinha-Santa Cita area (Lower Tejo River basin, central Portugal)

This paper aims to provide insight into human occupation and landscape change during the Pleistocene in a central area of the Lower Tejo basin (Portugal). Detailed geomorphological mapping, coupled with lithostratigraphy, sedimentology and luminescence dating, supports the identification of a complete terrace staircase sequence. It consists of six gravely terraces located below the culminant (Pliocene) basin unit. A chronological framework for the sedimentary sequences and associated human industries is proposed and correlated with marine oxygen isotope stages (MIS): T1 terrace, not dated; T2, not dated; T3, >300 ka; T4, ∼300-160 ka (MIS8, MIS7 and MIS6); T5, ∼136-75 ka (MIS5); T6, ∼62-30 ka (MIS3); colluvium and aeolian sands, ∼30-14 ka (MIS2); valley fill deposits, ∼14 ka to present (MIS1). The oldest artefacts were found at the base of the T4 terrace, with the local stratigraphic level dated to ≥175 ± 6 ka (Middle Pleistocene). The lithic assemblages collected from distinct stratigraphic levels (T4, T5 top, T6 terraces and colluvium) are characterized by the predominance of opportunistic technological choices, a feature that can be attributed partly to the preferential exploitation of the available raw material, dominated by local-sourced quartzites and quartz pebbles. The adaptation to local raw material (texture and volume), together with subsistence patterns and behaviours, could explain the rarity of Acheulian types (handaxes and cleavers) and picks in the T4 terraces of the Tejo tributaries; this is in contrast to the same terrace of the Tejo valley, in which these types are found. Interpretation of the environmental conditions (controlled by climate and glacio-eustatic sea-level changes) affecting the hunter-gatherer human groups is also presented.     

Quaternary Earth-science and Palaeolithic conservation initiatives in the Tejo (Tagus), Portugal: Comparison with the Lower Thames,UK

Geoconservation measures in the River Tejo, the Portuguese reach of the Tagus, are compared with those in the Thames downstream of London (UK). Both are fluvio-estuarine reaches with staircases of Pleistocene depositional terraces, each with important sedimentary, palaeontological and archaeological records. In both rivers, conservation measures are in place that aim to protect these records, promote research and inform the public. Inevitably there are differences in approach. Whereas Thames Quaternary interests are protected by a network of British statutory site designations, outreach is to the fore in the Tejo. Contrasting examples are highlighted here. The Tejo has interpretative materials in local museums and detailed explanatory displays at the low-terrace archaeo-geological site of Foz do Enxarrique, near the border with Spain, and at other sites. The Thames, in contrast, has few examples of physical outreach provision and limited formal protection for Pleistocene archaeological material outside the geological network, although extensive informal protection is provided by interaction between local geological groups and county and local-authority administrations. There is also a considerable difference in the degree of threat, with the Tejo above Lisbon being a relatively undeveloped valley, albeit with sporadic quarrying for aggregate, whereas the Lower Thames is an established area for infrastructure development, lying to the east of London, close to the river crossing of the orbital motorway. The different climate in the two regions profoundly influences the longevity of exposures in Quaternary deposits, with significant implications for management strategies. The comparison exercise reveals that each region would benefit from greater development of approaches used more prominently in the other; outreach measures in the Portuguese style would greatly enhance some of the Thames sites, but formal designation of Tejo exposures could prevent damaging operations being undertaken by owners who lack knowledge of their value, as exemplified by a case study of sites at Alpiarça, ~ 130 km upstream from Lisbon.     

Algal blooms in a shallow lake with a special reference to lake (Loch) Lindores: Scotland

Algal blooms are frequently observed in eutrophic lakes; a typical example of which is Lake Lindores, where two species of algal blooms were observed during the studied period. The first bloom of Asterionella formosa occured in spring, with a second occurence of the bloom observed in late winter and autumn when the water temperature was fairly low. At a higher water temperature, of more than 15°C, an unwanted blue-green algal bloom of Anabaena flosaquae occured. The blue-green algal bloom normally occured in summer and early autumn.     

Tidal-inlets and gravel deposition during the late Norwich Crag (Lower Pleistocene) of north-eastern Suffolk,U.K.

The Norwich Crag of north-eastern Suffolk is mainly composed of near-shore sands representing several sequences (cycles of transgression and regression). It is difficult to separate out the different sequences but the final sequence here is well known for the localised development of beds of flint gravel that have been interpreted as the in-situ remnants of prograding beaches. While a review of the evidence supports the involvement of this sedimentary environment in the overall processes, the evidence shows that virtually only gravels associated with rip-channels represent in-situ beach gravels and that thicker gravel beds are the infill of much larger channels. From consideration of the characteristics of the large channels it is concluded that these large channels were tidal-inlets between prograding barrier islands and that the gravels were derived from the adjacent up-drift beach faces of the barrier-islands.     

Spatial decision support systems (SDSS) and software applications for earthquake disaster management with special reference to Turkey

Natural Hazards - Earthquake disasters pose significant risks and remain a serious threat for millions of people causing a devastating loss of lives and damage to the infrastructure resulting in...     

Using landforms of Saudi Arabia for scenic and recreational purposes (With special reference to the Riyadh area)

The landform of Saudi Arabia in general and the Riyadh area in particular have their own potentiality for scenic and recreational purposes. The higher lands or features which have well cemented material in some areas of Riyadh have been recommended for scenic use, while lower lands like wide natural lakes, sand dunes and others can be mostly used for recreational purposes. Such features and purposes found here may be extrapolated into other similar areas within Saudi Arabia and may be compared with other areas elsewhere in the world.     

Palynological evidence for Lower Ordovician rocks (Tremadoc and Àrenig) in the Northern Greywacke Zone (Eastern Alps)

Until recently, only fossils of Caradoc to Carboniferous age have been reported from the Northern Greywacke Zone/Eastern Alps. New medium-preserved and diversified acritarch assemblages from the Lower Wildschönau Formation indicate a Lower Ordovician (Tremadoc and Arenig) age. These fossil spectra define a well-constrained time interval for a lower section of the Northern Greywacke Zone for the first time.     

Female circumcision and ethnic identification in Sudan with special reference to the Berti of Darfur1

This article assesses the state of female circumcision in the Sudan with the primary emphasis being placed on the Berti of Darfur. Among other things, the article examines the factors that have so far led to the perpetuation of the practice and the failure of the anti-circumcision campaign. The author suggests a renewal of the campaign through the use of a comprehensive approach which encompasses the social, aesthetic, medical, identificational and religious variables involved in the practice. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.