The hydrodynamics of the Snorre Field area, offshore Norway

The Snorre Field, in the Norwegian North Sea, contains a 300 m oil column and is characterized by high pressures. The Snorre Field and its satellites are a well-documented area and it was considered as an excellent case history for documenting hydrocarbon migration and petroleum hydrodynamics in an overpressured regime. The reservoirs are Triassic and Lower Jurassic sandstones overlain by thick shale formations. The overpressure in the acquifer is 14 MPa. The variations of the oil-water contact levels observed throughout the structure can be correlated with oil density variations. This implies that some faults are partly sealing and suggests that leakage through the cap rock is possible together with a selective input of hydrocarbons within the compartments. The possible mechanisms of pressuring and their consequences on the migration system are discussed in this paper. The origin of abnormal pressures in the reservoir is not directly related to the vertical overburden. Some equivalent overpressures due to the compaction exist further south at the North Alwyn location. An equalization of about 14 MPa overpressure occurs along a SW-NE structural trend, through the North Alwyn, Brent, Statfjord and Snorre fields. Snorre being at the shallowest depth, the pore pressure at the top of the reservoir reaches the stress limit for fracturing and hydrocarbons leak from the field. The idea that a large structural trend acts as a preferential route for the migration of hydrocarbons is well supported; however, the oils in Snorre have a GOR increasing from the southwest to the northeast part of the field and this feature, supported by organic geochemistry, reflects an input of light hydrocarbons from source areas in the adjacent 34/5 basin to the east where high pressures are generated. Evidence for high pressures in the basin exists on seismic profiles, where velocity anomalies indicate highly pressured deep zones and migration possibilities along fractures or unconformities. The pressure regime and the stress conditions are key points for the exploration in this area, together with the sealing capacity of the main faults.     

A chemical and thermodynamic model of oil generation in hydrocarbon source rocks

Thermodynamic calculations and Gibbs free energy minimization computer experiments strongly support the hypothesis that kerogen maturation and oil generation are inevitable consequences of oxidation/reduction disproportionation reactions caused by prograde metamorphism of hydrocarbon source rocks with increasing depth of burial.These experiments indicate that oxygen and hydrogen are conserved in the process.Accordingly, if water is stable and present in the source rock at temperatures ?25 but ?100 °C along a typical US Gulf Coast geotherm, immature (reduced) kerogen with a given atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio (H/C) melts incongruently with increasing temperature and depth of burial to produce a metastable equilibrium phase assemblage consisting of naphthenic/biomarker-rich crude oil, a type-II/III kerogen with an atomic hydrogen/carbon ratio (H/C) of ∼1, and water. Hence, this incongruent melting process promotes diagenetic reaction of detritus in the source rock to form authigenic mineral assemblages.However, in the water-absent region of the system CHO (which is extensive), any water initially present or subsequently entering the source rock is consumed by reaction with the most mature kerogen with the lowest H/C it encounters to form CO₂ gas and a new kerogen with higher H/C and O/C, both of which are in metastable equilibrium with one another.This hydrolytic disproportionation process progressively increases both the concentration of the solute in the aqueous phase, and the oil generation potential of the source rock; i.e., the new kerogen can then produce more crude oil.Petroleum is generated with increasing temperature and depth of burial of hydrocarbon source rocks in which water is not stable in the system CHO by a series of irreversible disproportionation reactions in which kerogens with higher (H/C)s melt incongruently to produce metastable equilibrium assemblages consisting of crude oil, CO₂ gas, and a more mature (oxidized) kerogen with a lower H/C which in turn melts incongruently with further burial to produce more crude oil, CO₂ gas, and a kerogen with a lower H/C and so forth.The petroleum generated in the process progresses from heavy naphthenic crude oils at low temperatures to mature petroleum at ∼150 °C. For example, the results of Computer Experiment 27 (see below) indicate that the overall incongruent melting reaction in the water-absent region of the system C-H-O at 150 °C and a depth of ∼4.3 km of an immature type-II/III kerogen with a bulk composition represented by C₂₉₂H₂₈₈O_12(c) to produce a mature (oxidized) kerogen represented by C₁₂₈H₆₈O_7(c), together with a typical crude oil with an average metastable equilibrium composition corresponding to C_8.8H_16.9 (C_8.8H_16.9(l)) and CO₂ gas (CO_2(g)) can be described by writing

(A)     

A dynamic theory of hydrocarbon migration

This paper presents a new analysis of secondary migration of hydrocarbon that does not require capillary forces for trapping, but instead uses the method of characteristics and wave theory. The waves change speed and either reflect or refract (or partially reflect and partially refract) as they contact with layers of different flow capacities. Reflection of a certain wave from a boundary starts hydrocarbon accumulation below that boundary. The method is easy to use and conforms readily to graphical solution. For the sake of simplicity there is only two-phase flow. The application of this method gives new insights into the physics of migration and entrapment of oil. The method gives realistic times for oil accumulation and points to oil generation rate as the most sensitive variable. Oil and water densities, viscosities, and permeability are also important. We find that at the very small generation rates usually assumed the time required to develop a given column thickness is insensitive to the distance from the source rock. In general, the method also predicts a non-uniform saturation in the oil column caused by an interaction between buoyancy and viscous forces. Being based on the dynamic interactions of viscous and buoyancy forces, our theory is considerably at odds with hydrostatic approaches. We assume no capillary pressure, one-dimensional flow, and no regional groundwater flow, conditions which are not realized in actual migration. The theory should be viewed therefore as an end member of a more general theory; nevertheless, the largely graphical solutions give fundamental insights that are difficult to obtain by other techniques.     

Shallow landslide hazard assessment using a three-dimensional deterministic model in a mountainous area

Shallow landslides are common in mountainous areas after intense rainfall. Of all landslide hazard assessment methods, deterministic methods provide the best quantitative information on landslide hazard. However, they require a large amount of detailed in situ data, derived from laboratory tests and field measurements, and therefore it is difficult to apply them over large areas. One of the most important input parameters is soil depth. For large areas, it is impossible to obtain soil depth through field measurements. To overcome this difficulty, a statistics-based regression analysis is used to evaluate soil depths. All the terrain attributes that control soil depths are selected as influential factors. By using multi-linear regression, the soil depths at each location can be predicted. Slope stability analysis can then be performed using deterministic methods with the evaluated soil depths. The study area is divided into slope units. For each slope unit, Monte-Carlo simulation and a GIS-based 3D limit equilibrium model are used to locate the critical slip surface and calculate the corresponding safety factor. The effectiveness of the proposed method has been tested by applying it to a mountainous area in Japan.     

确定性模型在黄土沟壑区斜坡稳定性预测中的应用

SHALSTAB耦合了稳态水文假定模型和无限斜坡稳定性模型,主要用于评价浅层滑坡稳定性的时空分布和发展趋势。选择黄土高原甘肃陇东地区华池县作为研究区,评价SHALSTAB模型在黄土沟壑区浅层滑动稳定性分析中的适用性和可靠性,利用1:5 000地形图获得了数字高程模型和地形坡度,以及室内和现场试验的物理力学参数,结合现场钻探和探槽得到的土层厚度分布和地表稳定性指数等级分布图。现场测量绘制的滑坡分布图与模拟结果对比和统计分析表明,SHALSTAB模拟的总体正确率为70.23%,滑坡预测正确率为72.33%,稳定状态预测正确率为67.51%,模拟效果良好。     

准噶尔盆地陆东-五彩湾石炭系烃源岩特征及生烃动力学研究

准噶尔盆地陆东-五彩湾地区石炭系具有良好的勘探前景,该地区石炭系烃源岩有机质丰度较高,成熟度范围宽,主要处于成熟-高成熟演化阶段,主要由Ⅲ型有机质组成。在对烃源岩样品进行常规评价的基础上,用开放体系进行了热解实验和动力学模拟,对陆东-五彩湾地区的生烃特征进行了研究,尝试了高成熟烃源岩生烃过程研究及Ⅲ型干酪根液态烃排烃时间的估计,并对石炭系地层产烃率进行了计算。结果显示,陆东-五彩湾地区石炭系最早在二叠纪（距今264 Ma左右）开始生烃,后期由于地层抬升,在古近纪早期（距今61 Ma左右）结束生烃。下石炭统产烃率大,液态烃排出时间估计在距今232~196 Ma之间;上石炭统产烃率较小,液态烃排出时间估计在距今196~178 Ma 之间,但天然气生成相对较晚,有利于天然气的保存。天然气可能主要来源于上石炭统烃源岩。     

软土动力排水固结的室内模型试验研究

以广州国际会展中心一期工程动力排水固结软基处理项目为工程背景进行了室内模型试验,重点观察和分析了插设塑料排水板过程中、全部夯击过程中及夯击完成后饱和软黏土内的孔压响应。结果表明,塑料排水板插设完毕时刻与各个位置孔压达到峰值时刻不同步,孔压增长体现出滞后性特点。夯击过程中,离夯击点越近,其孔压增长越快,孔压增长幅度也越大,达一定夯击击数后浅部孔压增长趋于平缓,而深部处全部夯击完毕后其孔压依然继续增加,但各个位置孔压消散情况基本一致。     

风化店中生界火山岩储层特征与油气成藏模式

基于钻井、录井、测井、薄片和化学分析等资料,对风化店地区中生界火山岩储层特征及油气成藏模式进行分析研究。结果表明：火山喷发活动具有多次间歇性喷发特征,喷发中心交替转移,发育3个喷溢中心;火山岩酸性程度稍高,碱性程度略低,可分为熔岩类、火山碎屑岩类、沉积火山碎屑岩类和火山碎屑沉积岩类4类;火山岩划分为火山爆发相、火山溢流相和火山沉积相3个岩相带,并围绕3个喷溢中心呈环带状分布;油气储集空间包括原生孔隙、次生孔隙和裂缝;深大断裂沟通生油岩与储集体,形成供油网络,使油气垂向运移并于良好储层富集成藏。     

采动区地表动态沉降预测的Richards模型

针对Knothe时间函数在采动区地表动态沉降预测中存在着较大偏差的问题,提出了地表动态沉降预测的Richards模型。基于开采过程中的地表沉降变形规律,给出了能够反映地表沉降全过程的理想时间函数模型所具有的基本特征,引入Richards生长曲线模型,分析了模型参数与地质采矿条件之间的定性、定量关系,并探讨了模型的适用范围,指出地表发生连续的、渐变的沉降变形时,模型预测效果较好。实例分析表明,Richards模型符合理想时间函数模型的要求,可较好地模拟采动区地表动态沉降过程,能够计算出地表移动持续时间和地表点在某一时刻的下沉值、下沉速度、加速度等动态参数,且模型的可塑性较强,具有较广泛的适用性     

应用生烃动力学法定量评价碳酸盐岩的二次生烃:以朱家墩气藏为例

针对碳酸盐岩发育区烃源岩普遍存在二次生烃的问题,以苏北盐城凹陷朱家墩气藏源岩二叠系栖霞组灰岩为目标,应用化学动力学方法定量研究该源岩的二次生烃(气).在模拟实验基础上,选取动力学模型,求取动力学参数,再结合朱家墩地区的埋藏史和热史,最终求取了源岩生气史曲线.得出在距今240-190 Ma(三叠纪-早侏罗世)时二叠系灰岩第一次生气,随后地层抬升,生气过程中止;在距今54 Ma(始新世)时该烃源岩埋藏条件达到了第一次生气终止时的条件,开始第二次生气,生气过程一直持续到现今,第一次生气量(10%)远无法与第二次生气量(80%)相比.并通过储层包裹体的均一化温度判断朱家墩气藏流体注入期次,结果显示,二次生气的生气高峰与流体注入期相匹配,验证了用动力学方法评价二次生烃、多次生烃的合理性,同时也佐证了二叠系灰岩对朱家墩气藏的贡献.     

南华北地区石炭-二叠纪煤系生烃潜力与二次生烃探讨

综合运用岩石热解、有机岩石学及有机地球化学等方法,对南华北地区石炭-二叠纪煤系烃源岩有机质丰度、类型以及成熟度和热演化史进行了分析,综合评价了烃源岩的生烃潜力。评价结果表明,石炭系(太原组+本溪组)烃源岩要好于二叠系山西组、石盒子组;有机质类型以Ⅲ型干酪根为主、Ⅱ型干酪根为辅;有机质热演化程度大部分处于成熟-高成熟阶段,部分地区达到过成熟,以生气为主。文中结合构造-热演化史资料分析了煤系二次生烃的条件,指出谭庄-沈丘凹陷和倪丘集凹陷初始成熟度较低,且具有合适的埋藏史类型,并有二次生烃油气勘探前景。      

动力排水固结法加固软土路基的模型试验研究

软土中孔隙水压力长消规律是研究动力排水固结法加固机制及控制施工效果的关键因素。针对这一问题,设计了动力排水固结法加固软土路基的模型试验装置并进行了试验。试验模拟某高速公路现场条件,按不同锤重、不同落距、不同锤底面积等工况分别进行。重点研究了动力排水固结法加固软土路基时,夯击击数、夯击能、夯锤重量及落距等参数在不同组合情况下土体不同深度处孔隙水压力的长消规律。研究表明,夯击能相同的情况下增加夯击次数将导致孔隙水压力消散减慢,但保持夯击能不变的情况下增加锤重比增加落距的加固效果好;高夯击能能使孔隙水压力有较大增幅,相应的加固范围也会增大。为了促使孔隙水压力消散,施工时宜采取多遍夯击,逐遍增加夯击能的施工方法     

煤生烃动力学研究进展

化学反应动力学是评价煤的生烃过程和生烃特性行之有效的方法。目前,煤生烃动力学模型理论研究和标定得到了不断的深化,煤生烃动力学研究在认识煤源岩成烃规律方面也有长足发展,并在煤源岩评价中初见成效。但是在压力条件下,关于生烃动力学在煤源岩定量和动态评价方面的研究则报道较少。另外,对单体化合物形成动力学的研究还处于探索之中。这些研究将代表煤源岩生烃动力学领域未来发展的重要方向。     

基于接力排水的强夯法在滨海回填区地基处理中的试验研究

本文对山东半岛海岸带滨海杂填土、饱和粉细砂、淤泥质土等特殊复杂地层地基处理方法进行了研究。以经济高效的强夯法为基础,提出复杂地层整体排水概念,设计了浅层、深层竖向排水和水平排水的接力排水系统,并进行了现场试验研究。监测数据表明,强夯荷载作用下,接力排水系统整体协同排水,可快速排出各个地层中地下水、消散超孔隙水压力。7 h左右可基本消除强夯引起的地下水上升及孔隙水压力消散。持续降水,地表沉降为上部土体厚度的0.7%～2.0%。强夯动力荷载作用下,表层土体压缩为上部土体厚度的8.7%～10.9%。埋深3～7 m土体沉降约为土体厚度的5‰、3‰,埋深7～10 m土体沉降为土体厚度的2‰。检测数据表明,在强夯有效影响深度内地基处理效果明显,土体工程性状改善明显。表层承载力及变形模量满足设计要求,4 m以下淤泥承载力平均值略低于设计要求,下部淤泥质土计算平均固结度为77%。夯后1个月监测数据表明,地表沉降量在25 mm以内,已逐步趋于稳定,分层沉降、孔隙水压力数值整体稳定略有下降。     

塔里木盆地罗斯—玛东地区碳酸盐岩潜山储层特征及油气藏模式

随着塔里木盆地罗斯—玛东地区中—下奥陶统碳酸盐岩潜山勘探的相继突破,碳酸盐岩储层的复杂性日渐凸显。综合钻井、地震、测井、岩心、薄片等手段对比研究表明,研究区中—下奥陶统碳酸盐岩潜山储层特征具有显著的差异性:①垂向上储层受岩性影响较大。蓬莱坝组以细—中晶白云岩为主,鹰山组下段为石灰岩-白云岩过渡岩性,鹰山组上段主要为泥晶灰岩,自下而上储层变差。②平面上潜山暴露区和覆盖区的储层差异较大。鹰山组上段仅在潜山垒带内形成裂缝型储层,覆盖区储层欠发育;鹰山组下段"串珠"储层发育,暴露区辅以裂缝型储层;蓬莱坝组潜山暴露区与覆盖区孔洞型储层均发育。通过对储层分布和发育特征的研究,提出了碳酸盐岩潜山油气藏分布的3种模式:蓬莱坝组构造型块状油气藏,鹰山组上段裂缝型准层状油气藏,鹰山组下段裂缝-洞穴型油气藏。     

A study of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion of the Nkporo Shales in Anambra Basin,Nigeria

This study is a contribution to our understanding of the hydrocarbon potentials of the Nkporo Shale in the Anambra Basin, Nigeria. The main objective was to simulate the hydrocarbon generation and expulsion in the Nkporo source horizons encountered in Igbariam-1, Iji-1, and Ajire-1 wells drilled in the basin, using the one-dimensional Genesis Zetaware basin modeling software. This software enabled the integration of burial and thermal influences on Nkporo source rocks with kinetic parameters, in order to define the timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion in relation to the main structural episodes in the basin. The Nkporo source horizons encountered in Igbariam-1 well (2,650 m) has not expelled hydrocarbons but has a remaining potential of 380 mg/gTOC. Conversely, in Iji-1 well (3,450 m) and Ajire-1 well (3,250 m), the Nkporo source rocks expelled oil of about 110–127 mg/gTOC and gas of about 85–125 mg/gTOC. The time of expulsion was in Eocene–Oligocene (51–30 My) at the rate of 10.5–11.5 mg/gTOC/My. The remaining potentials for Nkporo source rocks in Iji-1 and Ajire-1 wells are 160 and 125 mg/gTOC, respectively. The result shows an increasing trend in maturation, generation, and expulsion of hydrocarbons with increasing depth towards the southwestern part of the basin. This resulted in an increase in the generated hydrocarbon volumes to the south due to (a) increased burial depth and early maturation and (b) changing source lithofacies—more marine. The fault system linking potential reservoirs such as Owelli Sandstone to the source rock suggests a possible migration of the generated hydrocarbons to those reservoirs at that time.     

华南上扬子区深部温度估算及其油气地质意义

盆地热体制及深部温度估算对油气和区域地热能资源评估具有重要意义。南方上扬子区是海相油气勘探的重要区块,近年来更是我国页岩气勘探的主要选区。然而,由于数据不足及研究目标的分散,该区的盆地热体制特征还有待深化。结合前人已有地热数据,并整合新近开展的稳态测温数据,我们揭示了上扬子区现今地温梯度、大地热流分布特征,继而估算了1000～6000m埋深处的深部地层温度和2套主要古生界海相烃源岩底界面处的温度。结果表明,上扬子区具有中-低温的地热状态,其现今地温梯度和大地热流的范围(平均值)分别为10～74℃/km(24℃/km)和27～118mW/m²(64mW/m²),整体上从东北向西南方向递增,呈现出"东北低、西南高"的分布趋势。1000～6000m埋深处估算温度的分布格局与地温梯度及热流的分布趋势基本一致。东北部的鄂西-湘北地区为低温区,中部的四川盆地其大部分为中温区,西南的云南地区为高温区。上扬子区现今地热分布格局受区域差异构造和岩浆作用控制。结合储层温度估算并综合其他油气地质资料,提出川东的石柱-涪陵、川南的威远-自贡-泸州和宜宾-长宁等区的下...     

华北地区上古生代煤系有机质热演化与二次生烃探讨

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