Geological controls on rock mass classification of coal from Huntly East Mine, New Zealand

Rock Mass Rating (RMR) measurements from 65 sites within Huntly East underground coal mine are presented. All measurements are in coal, for which the dominant discontinuities are vertical cleat. Basic RMR values using two discontinuity spacings are presented: overall RMR based on the average spacing of all individual discontinuities; and cleat zone RMR based on the average spacing between zones of cleat. Cleat orientations are highly variable, but on average approximately parallel horizontal stress axes (face cleat follows maximum horizontal stress axis, butt cleat follows minimum horizontal stress axis).Contours of RMR variations throughout the mine are used to compare rock mass conditions with geological structure. It is apparent that: (1) RMR is least within downthrown fault blocks, and particularly immediately on the downthrown sides of faults, and greatest in upthrown fault blocks; and (2) RMR contours parallel horizontal stress axes within fault-bounded blocks, and bend to parallel faults at block boundaries. From similar contours for parameters contributing to RMR, the Rock Quality Designation (RQD), groundwater rating, and discontinuity condition rating create most of the observed variations in RMR. RQD is determined from the measured discontinuity frequency and hence is a measure of the degree of fracturing of the rock mass. This is interpreted as influencing the groundwater and condition parameters directly by allowing greater water ingress. Discontinuity frequency is greatest (least spacing) in the immediate vicinity of faults, and in downthrown fault blocks, generating low RMR values. Within fault blocks RQD varies little, so RMR contours align with cleat orientations.As RMR contours, faults, stress field and cleat orientation are clearly interrelated, there is unequivocally a connection between RMR and structural geology; this allows some predictive capacity in terms of ground conditions. If geological features can be accurately defined through either drilling programs or seismic surveys, then ground conditions may be predicted before panels are driven.     

Influence of Rock Mass Parameters on the Performance of a TBM in a Gneissic Formation (Varzo Tunnel)

Summary The paper analyses the influence of rock mass quality on the performance of a double shield TBM in the excavation of a tunnel in a gneiss formation which is characterized by high strength and low fracture intensity.As full observation of the rock conditions was prevented by the use of segmental lining, a geomechanical survey of the face was performed during maintenance downtime and the observed conditions were correlated with the machine performance parameters for that same day. A statistical analysis of the data shows that penetration rate correlates well with a slightly modified RMR index (in which the influence of the water conditions and joint orientation were discounted), but the most important factor is by far the partial rating of the RMR classification related to joint spacing only. However in tunnels characterized by greater variability in rock strength and joint conditions, it could be worthwhile using the complete RMR index.Given the toughness of the rock, failure of the cutter bearings and supports were a frequent occurrence during excavation. Owing to this factor the influence of rock quality on the rate of advance was found to be weak and the correlation more scattered.The results obtained for the Varzo tunnel were compared with those relative to other tunnels in granitic rocks and found to be in good agreement. However the relationships obtained should be considered valid only for this type of rock; machine behaviour could be found to be markedly different in other rock types, even where rock material strength and joint frequency are the same.     

The Stress Field in the Upper Crust as Determined from In Situ Measurements

This paper provides a synopsis of the state of stress in the upper parts of the earth's crust based uponin situ rock stress determinations. Despite the large scatter of the data, two dominant trends can be detected in the variations of average horizontal stress with depth in various geological environments. Basement rocks in ancient shields and deformed rocks in fold belts usually show horizontal stresses larger than the theoretical overburden pressure. Sedimentary cover rocks and fissured massive rocks show horizontal stresses smaller than the overburden pressure. The ratio of the maximum to the minimum horizontal stress exhibits a clear stress anisotropy in most cases. Directions of maximum horizontal compression are fairly consistent in areas where sufficient measurements are available (North America and Fennoscandia), although in many instances they do not conform to any simple predicted stress pattern. Many factors complicate the interpretation ofin situ stress determinations. There is no simple relationship between the stress trajectories and the free surface. Topographic features and erosional processes may cause horizontal stress concentrations. Remanent stresses of great age can be superimposed on current tectonic stresses, while sometimes current stresses no longer coincide with the stress systems that caused observable faulting and folding. Observation of remanent stresses in ancient rocks shows that rocks in the upper crust have finite strength even under geological time intervals. From the viewpoint of global tectonics,in situ stress determinations ought to be used with great caution, and in conjunction with focal mechanism solutions of earthquakes. Although the state of stress is everywhere compressive, the fact that undeformed sedimentary cover rocks often show no excess horizontal stress would seem to indicate that no active global horizontal compression is required. Horizontal stresses larger than the overburden pressure in regions of intense palaeodeformation may be due to remanent stress effects and to the influence of the local structure. It is premature to advance any general statement on tectogenesis on the basis ofin situ stress determinations. More measurements, and a quantitative evaluation of the factors affecting them, are required before further progress can be made.     

Simulation of Stress Distribution around Tunnels and Interaction between Tunnels Using an Elasto-plastic Model

This article presents a computer simulation of stress distribution around tunnels and interaction between tunnels using an elasto-plastic model. A finite element method using ANSYS software has been used for the analyses of one and two tunnels at different overburden depths with different separating distances between the tunnels. The results of numerical analyses indicate that stress distribution and stress concentration around the tunnels vary with the overburden depths. It is found that the coefficients of stress concentration for elasto-plastic medium are smaller than those for elastic one by 1.9%. Furthermore, the interaction between the two tunnels rapidly decreases with the increase of separation distance between them. In addition, for quantitatively describing the interaction between the two tunnels, a critical separation distance is introduced. The critical separation distances between the two tunnels at different overburden depths are 8 m, 12 m, and 14 m respectively. This fact is very important and essential for the design of mining tunnels and to ensure safety in tunnel engineering.     

Simulation of Stress Distribution around Tunnels and Interaction between Tunnels Using an Elasto–plastic Model

This article presents a computer simulation of stress distribution around tunnels and interaction between tunnels using an elasto-plastic model. A finite element method using ANSYS software has been used for the analyses of one and two tunnels at different overburden depths with different separating distances between the tunnels. The results of numerical analyses indicate that stress distribution and stress concentration around the tunnels vary with the overburden depths. It is found that the coefficients of stress concentration for elasto-plastic medium are smaller than those for elastic one by 1.9%. Furthermore, the interaction between the two tunnels rapidly decreases with the increase of separation distance between them. In addition, for quantitatively describing the interaction between the two tunnels, a critical separation distance is introduced. The critical separation distances between the two tunnels at different overburden depths are 8 m, 12 m, and 14 m respectively. This fact is very important and essential for the design of mining tunnels and to ensure safety in tunnel engineering.     

陕南特长公路隧道水压致裂法地应力测量结果及工程地质意义分析

中国西部地区地势复杂,区域构造应力场各向异性显著,了解地区地壳应力状态是判断隧道设计阶段线路布设合理性的基础,也是预测隧道施工过程可能出现岩爆、断层滑动等其他工程灾害的重要参数。为了研究陕南特长高速公路隧道现今地应力状态,基于古仙洞隧道钻孔(ZK10钻孔)与化龙山隧道钻孔(ZK11钻孔)水压致裂地应力测量,获得了两隧道现今地应力分布特征。古仙洞和化龙山特长深埋隧道最大埋深处S_H值分别为13 MPa和22 MPa;古仙洞与化龙山隧道的应力关系分别为S_H>S_h>S_v和S_H>S_v>S_h,水平主应力起主导作用;S_H方向为近北西—北西西向,与区域现今构造活动背景基本一致,主要受秦岭造山带活动断裂影响。基于地应力测量结果、相关理论及判断依据认为:最大水平主应力方向与洞轴线夹角,有利于隧道围岩稳定,研究区内古仙洞与化龙山隧道的总体布置是合理的;采用岩石强度应力比法、陶振宇判据、Russenes判据和岩石应力强度比法综合判定研究区内两隧道不具备发生中等强度以上等级岩爆的可能;利用莫尔-库伦准则及拜尔定律,摩擦系数μ取0.6~1.0,对研究区内两隧道的现今地应力状态分析后发现,两隧道附近断裂带的地应力大小未达到地壳浅部断层产生滑动失稳的临界条件,处于较稳定的应力状态。      

The tectonic regime in Italy inferred from borehole breakout data

In Italy, the horizontal stress directions are well constrained in many regions, but the tectonic regime is not well known because the stress magnitudes are unknown. Our intention is to improve the knowledge of crustal stress in Italy, both at shallow depth and in low seismicity areas. Therefore, we inferred the tectonic regime from the comparison between the depth of breakout occurrence and the physical properties of the rocks in 20 boreholes. The critical value of the maximum horizontal stress, for which the effective tangential stress at the borehole wall overcomes the rock strength to form breakouts, could be computed from rock strength and density. Comparing the theoretical stress distributions for different tectonic regimes with the depth distribution of breakout occurrence, it is possible to infer the tectonic regime that fits best to the breakout depth distribution. We investigated boreholes up to 6 km deep located in different tectonic environments over the Italian peninsula: the Po Plain, the Apenninic chain, the Adriatic foredeep and the Tyrrhenian Quaternary volcanic region. These wells are characterised by breakout data of good quality (A, B and C, according to World Stress Map quality ranking system). The results are in general agreement with the style of faulting derived from earthquake focal mechanisms and other stress indicators. Our results show a predominance of a normal faulting (NF) regime in the inner Apennines and both normal faulting and strike–slip faulting (SS) style in the surrounding regions, possibly also associated with changes in the tectonic regime with depth.     

高地应力条件下围岩质量分类方法研究

围岩质量分类是隧道及地下工程领域重要的技术工作之一。限于经验,目前常用的围岩质量分类方法主要适用于中低应力、低应力环境,而在高地应力地区的适宜性较差。文章结合某水电工程实例,先后采用BQ分类、HC分类、RMR分类以及Q系统分类方法,分别就4种方法分类结果的相关性、吻合率和一致性等方面开展了系列对比研究和初步的成因分析。发现无论是上述4种方法各自的分类依据和指标,还是各指标权重的大小均有较大差异。故针对高地应力环境,以及研究区高地应力条件下的岩爆问题,分别对现行Q系统分类、HC分类和RMR分类方法逐一进行了修正。如Q系统重点修正了地应力折减系数、节理粗糙度系数Jr和节理风化蚀变系数Ja;HC分类提出了考虑高地应力和岩爆烈度的地应力折减系数,而取消了强度应力比S;RMR方法主要修正了R6,并增加了地应力折减系数K等。修正后的Q、HC、RMR方法所得结果更接近实际情况。最后,基于概率统计方法,建立了采用多种方法的围岩综合分类方案。     

Effects of Rock Bolting on Stress Distribution around Tunnel Using the Elastoplastic Model

INTRODUCTIONThe stability of underground structures duringand after excavation is the most i mportant factor fordesigners because any kind of collapse may destroylarge parts of a finished tunnel,thereby causing ma-jor repairs and ti me loss.To avoid this problem,rock bolts are widely used as ani mportant support el-ement.These are economical,have a short installa-tion ti me,and provide reinforcement to maintain theintegrity of the stressed rock.The effect of the bearing capacity of rock b…     

地质作用深度测算中的问题

迄今为止,地质作用的深度通常是用压力除以密度来计算的。这种方法只在假设岩石处于静止的液体状态下才是正确的。然而,实际上从浅部地壳直至地幔深处的岩石都是固体状态而不是液体状态,且粘性系数随浓度递增。实测数据表明,地下水平压应力总是大于垂直压应力,说明构造力在量值上超过重力。所以,在地壳中进行地质作用深度的测算必须把岩石看作是固体并依据固体物理理论。因此,吕古贤等在文献〔１６〕中提出的深度测算方法（１     

大茅隧道地应力测量及围岩体稳定性研究

本文介绍了大茅隧道岩石三轴实验和地应力测量结果,分析了隧道围岩体应力作用特征。作用于该区的应力以水平应力为主,量值不大,最大主应力方向为NWW.这与该区主要断裂为压扭性的力学性质及震源机制解的结果是一致的。最后结合该区工程地质条件,对隧道施工安全措施及其稳定性进行了讨论。      

Rock bursting phenomena in a superficial rock mass in southern central Sweden

SummaryRock Bursting Phenomena in a Superficial Rock Mass in Southern Central Sweden Rock bursting phenomena have been observed in connection with excavation of two shallow sited rock tunnels in the Forsmark area in southern, central Sweden. The tunnels are excavated in gneiss granite and the rock cover varies between 5–15 m. The stress release occurred locally in the tunnels which indicates significant variations in rock stresses.In situ measurements of the triaxial stress situation carried out in the area show values of the principal stresses in the horizontal plane of a magnitude in excess of 20 MPa in the superficial rock mass. The rock stress measurements indicate a clear correspondence of the directions of the highest compressive stress and the rock foliation. There is also a clear correspondence between the directions of a vertical and a horizontal joint set and the highest compressive stress. The three-dimensional stress tensor indicates that the horizontal fractures are exposed to the smallest closure pressure, i. e. the vertical stress, which set should therefore be most open. The horizontal joint set in the superficial rock mass has a significantly higher value of aperture than the vertical sets which may be a consequence of the stress situation in the rock mass. The rock bursting is not attributed to a breakage of the rock matrix, but merely to a propagation of already existing small fractures and potential fractures. The stress situation in the Forsmark area may be regarded as an uniaxial stress field in the horizontal plane.With 12 Figures     

Localization of mining-induced horizontal fractures along rock layer interfaces in overburden: field measurements and prediction

The locations of mining-induced horizontal fractures along rock interfaces in the overburden of Donetsk Coal Basin were identified using an original experimental device. The device traps methane from horizontal fracture zone (100–fold coal seam thickness) over an active longwall mining excavation. Presence or absence of horizontal fractures along rock layer interfaces is correlated with physical characteristics of the overburden, such as thickness, uniaxial compressive strength of overburden rock layers, location of rock layer interfaces and thickness of extracted coal seams. As a result, a combined criterion based on these physical characteristics is proposed to predict the presence of overburden horizontal fracturing in coal mine operations.     

拉林铁路板块缝合带隧道地应力分析

青藏高原板块缝合带为印度板块和欧亚板块两大陆块的缝合区域,带区地质条件复杂,构造运动强烈。川藏线拉林铁路几乎沿雅鲁藏布江缝合带展布,高地应力问题十分突出,但目前针对板块缝合带隧道的地应力研究相对较少。本文采用空心包体法对拉林铁路沿线隧道进行了原位地应力测量,并与成兰、兰渝和锦屏等几个典型工程的地应力进行对比分析。研究表明：拉林铁路沿线隧道埋深大,构造应力突出,总体表现为最大水平主应力 > 垂直主应力 > 最小水平主应力;平均侧压系数（1.0~1.5）分布较为集中且处于较高水平;最大主应力量值大多在20~50 MPa之间,最大主应力与埋深的梯度为0.033 7 MPa/m,方向以北北西-北北东向为主。建议采用仰拱结构减小隧道墙脚处的应力集中现象。     

Mechanics of growth of some laccolithic intrusions in the Henry mountains, Utah, II: Bending and failure of overburden layers and sill formation

Deformation of host rocks during growth of a laccolithic intrusion is analyzed using the theory of bending a stack of thin elastic plates. The theoretical model suggests that magma spreading laterally in the form of a sill will eventually gain sufficient leverage on the overlying strata to deflect them upward and form a laccolith. The amount of bending increases as the fourth power of the distance the magma spreads, whereas the overburden resists bending as the third power of its effective thickness. Effective thickness is the thickness of a single layer which has the same resistance to bending as a multilayer of similar length and elastic modulus. The effective thickness of overburden in the Henry Mountains is estimated as between and of the actual thickness. The form of bending is similar for Newtonian, pseudoplastic, and Bingham magmas. The magnitude of the bending depends upon the total upward force and its distribution and is not simply related to magma viscosity as has been suggested by several previous investigators.After elastic bending strata should fail over the periphery of an intrusion, the site of maximum bending strain and differential stress predicted by the theory. Field observations described in Part I correlate well with these predictions. Because bending strains are proportional to layer thickness, strata of comparable strength but different thicknesses fail at different stages of laccolith development. This leads to the different cross-sectional forms of laccoliths observed in the field.The effect of host rocks on sill form and growth is analyzed using the elastic solution for an elliptical hole under uniform pressure. The theory suggests that sill thickness increases in proportion to length. The concentration of high stresses near the sill termination should induce permanent deformation and account for the blunt terminations described in Part I. This blunting is most likely to occur in relatively ductile rocks whereas sills simply split brittle rocks and maintain sharp terminations. The driving pressure in sills can be calculated from measurements of length and termination radius of curvature, if the yield strength of the host rocks can be estimated. This driving pressure must be greater than the overburden pressure, but sills apparently do not form or propagate by lifting their overburdens. Instead they propagate by locally deforming the host rock. After spreading over a distance about three times the effective overburden thickness, the overlying layers begin to bend upward significantly. This stage marks the transition from a sill to a laccolithic intrusion.     

三峡引水工程秦巴段输水隧洞稳定性分析

三峡引水工程秦巴段隧洞总长占线路总长的80%。为了分析隧洞施工及运营中可能发生的工程地质问题,在地质调查、地应力测量和岩石力学参数测试的基础上,利用Ansys有限元软件对引水工程北部不同深度、不同截面形态的隧洞围岩的应力重分布情况进行了模拟计算,得到了圆形隧洞、城门形隧洞和马蹄形隧洞围岩的应力分布结果。利用Hoek-Brown强度准则,得到了隧洞围岩的强度/应力比值,进而对不同深度、不同截面形态的隧洞围岩的稳定性进行了分析。初步认为:隧洞埋深小于1000m时,应优先考虑圆形隧洞和马蹄形隧洞;埋深大于1000m时,应优先考虑城门形隧洞。这项研究成果为引水工程深埋隧洞的设计提供了参考依据。     

南水北调西线第一期工程调水区水压致裂地应力测量及其工程意义

本文介绍了水压致裂地应力测量原理和方法及其在南水北调西线工程中的应用。在调水工程沿线测得主应力大小、方向,并分析了其相互关系和分布规律。结果表明现今地壳应力场水平主应力占主导地位,属逆断层状态,且σ_Hmax/σ_V较大,属于构造影响强烈地区,主压应力方向总体呈NE向,与区域构造线呈锐角相交,是造成区域大多数断裂压扭左行运动的主要动力。进一步分析了深埋隧道发生岩爆灾害的可能性,为南水北调西线工程各引水线路的优化设计和隧道灾害防治提供了可靠资料。      

A Top Pilot Tunnel Preconditioning Method for the Prevention of Extremely Intense Rockbursts in Deep Tunnels Excavated by TBMs

The headrace tunnels at the Jinping II Hydropower Station cross the Jinping Mountain with a maximum overburden depth of 2,525 m, where 80% of the strata along the tunnels consist of marble. A number of extremely intense rockbursts occurred during the excavation of the auxiliary tunnels and the drainage tunnel. In particular, a tunnel boring machine (TBM) was destroyed by an extremely intense rockburst in a 7.2-m-diameter drainage tunnel. Two of the four subsequent 12.4-m-diameter headrace tunnels will be excavated with larger size TBMs, where a high risk of extremely intense rockbursts exists. Herein, a top pilot tunnel preconditioning method is proposed to minimize this risk, in which a drilling and blasting method is first recommended for the top pilot tunnel excavation and support, and then the TBM excavation of the main tunnel is conducted. In order to evaluate the mechanical effectiveness of this method, numerical simulation analyses using the failure approaching index, energy release rate, and excess shear stress indices are carried out. Its construction feasibility is discussed as well. Moreover, a microseismic monitoring technique is used in the experimental tunnel section for the real-time monitoring of the microseismic activities of the rock mass in TBM excavation and for assessing the effect of the top pilot tunnel excavation in reducing the risk of rockbursts. This method is applied to two tunnel sections prone to extremely intense rockbursts and leads to a reduction in the risk of rockbursts in TBM excavation.     

铁矿深埋巷道围岩变形与地应力关系研究

随着大量深埋地下工程的建设,尤其是大型矿山,与巷道围岩稳定有关的各种地质灾害问题突出,因此其一直备受关注。某铁矿巷道埋深450～800m,变形剧烈,局部持续大变形,呈条带状臌出。地应力实测结果表明,矿区地应力总体特征为σv≥σH〉σh,现今水平构造作用明显,最大水平主应力为13-21MPa,接近岩体自重。大变形洞段围岩为裂隙化岩体,强度低,蠕变性明显。有限元分析表明,巷道开挖后在边墙与顶拱和底板交界处产生约40MPa的高应力,造成了围岩变形破坏。后期围岩在高应力作用下产生大变形,其宏观变形破坏特征与软岩相似。另围岩加固与支护发现,普通的挂网喷锚支护已很难适应高应力条件下的岩体大变形。论文基于地应力实测结果,通过对巷道围岩大变形成因机制的探讨以及原加固支护效果的总结,为后期巷道围岩变形破坏的防治提供了参考。     

裂纹方向对隧道稳定性影响规律的研究

采用模型试验和数值模拟方法,研究单轴压缩载荷下带裂纹直墙拱形隧道在不同的裂纹面与隧道垂直边墙之间的夹角 时围岩损伤破坏规律。试验采用水泥砂浆制作成具有不同夹角 的直墙拱形隧道模型,养护30 d后进行加载。数值模拟采用混凝土损伤塑性模型,计算出隧道周边各点的应力和裂纹尖端的应力强度因子,与模型试验结果吻合较好。结果表明,拱肩处的裂纹会降低隧道的整体稳定性及强度,在裂纹尖端及侧壁产生很大的应力集中,但随着 角度的变化,强度降低的程度有所不同;当 = 60?和 = 130?时,裂纹对其整体稳定性及强度的影响最大,其裂纹尖端的应力集中现象最为明显,而且破坏应力峰值仅为无裂纹模型的40.9%和41.8%。