Microscopic characteristics of orthoquartzite from sliding friction experiments. II. Gouge

Optical, TEM and SEM observations were made on gouge from orthoquartzite subjected to sliding friction experiments (Hayes, 1975; Dunn and Hayes, 1975) at a constant effective confining pressure of 500 bars and a strain rate of 2.5 · 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹, both dry and in the presence of pore fluids. All experiments exhibited stick-slip behavior, and brittle fracture of both surface asperities and the gouge is the dominant deformation mechanism. Crystalline, smooth filamentous projections on larger fragments and individual filaments found throughout the gouge indicate that ductile flow is occurring at the tips of surface asperities. Welded gouge and a small amount of glass are found in the dry samples. The presence of a fluid inhibits the formation of welded gouge and glass but promotes the production of angular fragments by causing them to move past one another instead of clumping. The gouge showed a 99.7% reduction in the average grain size for all experimental conditions indicating that mechanical abrasion is highly effective even with 2.5–5.9 mm axial displacements.The experimental results can aid our understanding of the formation of gouge and fractures during faulting and the stabilization of fault movements to prevent earthquakes. The experimentally-produced gouge is analogous to cataclastic rocks lacking primary cohesion which are produced during near-surface brittle fracturing. Observations of experimental and natural faults suggest that fracturing along the sliding surface increases with increased displacement. Fault stabilization is enhanced by the presence of a fluid which lowers the coefficient of sliding friction and which completely wets the gouge produced during the movement.     

Gas permeability evolution of cataclasite and fault gouge in triaxial compression and implications for changes in fault-zone permeability structure through the earthquake cycle

We report the results of permeability measurements of fault gouge and tonalitic cataclasite from the fault zone of the Median Tectonic Line, Ohshika, central Japan, carried out during triaxial compression tests. The experiments revealed marked effects of deformation on the permeability of the specimens. Permeability of fault gouge decreases rapidly by about two orders of magnitude during initial loading and continues to decrease slowly during further inelastic deformation. The drop in permeability during initial loading is much smaller for cataclasite than for gouge, followed by abrupt increase upon failure, and the overall change in permeability correlates well with change in volumetric strain, i.e., initial, nearly elastic contraction followed by dilatancy upon the initiation of inelastic deformation towards specimen failure. If cemented cataclasite suffers deformation prior to or during an earthquake, a cataclasite zone may change into a conduit for fluid flow. Fault gouge zones, however, are unlikely to switch to very permeable zones upon the initiation of fault slip. Thus, overall permeability structure of a fault may change abruptly prior to or during earthquakes and during the interseismic period. Fault gouge and cataclasite have internal angles of friction of about 36° and 45°, respectively, as is typical for brittle rocks.     

高温高压及干燥条件下斜长石和辉石断层泥的摩擦滑动研究

岩石摩擦滑动的力学行为能够很好地用速率和状态依赖性摩擦本构关系来描述。在速率和状态依赖性本构关系中,速度依赖性参数a-b是控制摩擦滑动稳定性的重要参数。且a-b<0是断层上不稳定滑动成核的必要条件。为了进一步研究控制摩擦滑动的矿物成分因素,在已有辉长岩摩擦滑动实验结果的基础上,对辉长岩中主要矿物(斜长石和辉石)在不同加载条件下进行了3个系列的摩擦滑动实验研究。通过对实验结果的分析得到如下结论:(1)斜长石断层泥在实验温度范围内(<617℃)显示速度强化,且在大于450℃的高温区其速度依赖性参数a-b随温度的增大而增加。辉石断层泥的实验显示其有利于速度弱化滑动行为的出现,是造成辉长岩在615℃出现速度弱化的原因。(2)斜长石与辉石断层泥的摩擦强度都没有随温度的增加而显著变化。辉长岩断层泥的摩擦强度(1.83mm滑动位移处的值)为斜长石与辉石断层泥摩擦强度按体积百分比加权的平均值(摩擦系数精确到2位有效数字一致)。这一结果表明,辉长岩断层泥的应力支承结构可以抽象为一种双组分并列单元模型。(3)尽管前人研究结果表明石英控制了花岗岩的摩擦特性,但是某种主要矿物对岩石整体摩擦滑动性质的控制作用并不具有普适性。对于中性岩、基性岩而言,不能以一种主要矿物(如斜长石等)来判断岩石整体的摩擦滑动稳定性,否则会导致错误结论。     

Reduction of friction on geological faults by weak-phase smearing

Most common crustal rock types display friction coefficients of 0.6 or higher, but some faults must be frictionally weak as they slip when the stress state is unfavourably-oriented (i.e. the resolved shear stress is low for a given normal stress across the fault surface). A role for low-friction minerals and high pore fluid pressures, either separately or in combination, is frequently invoked to explain such slip, but volume fractions of dispersed weak phases often seem to be present in fault gouge in amounts too small to produce significant mechanical weakening. By means of mechanical tests on synthetic fault gouge and microstructural study of run products, we show that the effective area of an embedded weak phase (graphite) on a slip plane can be substantially increased by mechanical smearing, and that the enlarged area of the weak phase on the slip plane follows a linear mixing law. This allows a relatively small volume fraction of the initially dispersed weak phase to have a disproportionately large effect, provided the smearing is concentrated into a narrow planar slip zone or into an interconnected network of them.     

Shear localization,velocity weakening behavior,and development of cataclastic foliation in experimental granite gouge

Microstructural aspects of room-temperature deformation in experimental Westerly granite gouge were studied by a set of velocity stepping rotary-shear experiments at 25 MPa normal stress. The experiments were terminated at: (a) 44 mm, (b) 79 mm, and (c) 387 mm of sliding, all involving variable-amplitude fluctuations in friction. Microstructural attributes of the gouge were studied using scanning (SEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), image processing, and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses. The gouge was velocity weakening at sliding distances >10 mm as a core of cataclasites along a through-going shear zone developed within a mantle of less deformed gouge in all experiments. Unlike in experiment (a), the cataclasites in experiments (b) and (c) progressively developed a foliation defined by stacks of shear bands. The individual bands showed an asymmetric particle-size grading normal to shearing direction. These microstructures were subsequently disrupted and reworked by high-angle Riedel shears. While the microstructural evolution affected the effective thickness and frictional strength of the gouge, it did not affect its overall velocity dependence behavior. We suggest that the foliation resulted from competing shear localization and frictional slip hardening and that the velocity dependence of natural fault gouge depends upon compositional as well as microstructural evolution of the gouge.     

Palaeostress and neotectonic analysis of sheared conglomerates: Southwest Alps and Southern Apennines

Geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the deformation of poorly cemented conglomerates are described. Using striated pebbles for analysis of palaeostresses, it is crucial to distinguish radial striation patterns, which result from deformation of the matrix around a rigid pebble, from unidirectional striation patterns that represent shear zones crossing the conglomeratic material. Examples of palaeostress determinations from striations of the latter type are given for extensional settings (Provence) and compressional settings (Southern Apennines, Southwest Alps). Their comparison with fault analyses in brittle rocks that underlie the conglomerates validates their usefulness for palaeostress analyses and suggests that some conglomerates behave as materials containing pre-existing surfaces of mechanical anisotropy that fail by sliding on some suitable oriented surfaces. These examples show that sheared conglomerates can be used for stratigraphic dating of the deformation, for studies of syndepositional deformation and for neotectonic analysis.     

准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁断裂带断层泥分形特征与断裂活动关系

根据采集的天然断层泥样品 ,对准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁逆断裂带中断层泥进行了显微构造、显微形貌和分形研究。研究结果表明 ,断层泥至少存在三期变形 ;同时断层泥和石英碎粒中既发育有线状擦痕、阶步等典型的粘滑活动显微构造 ,也发育有剪切滑动、定向排列等典型的蠕滑活动变形现象 ,说明了断裂活动的长期性和复杂性。断层泥的分形研究表明 ,霍尔果斯和吐谷鲁断裂带断层泥分维值分别在 2 .17～ 2 .6 3和 2 .76～ 2 .89变化 ,分维值与断层运动方式粘滑或蠕滑不存在因果关系。因此 ,断层泥分维值能否作为判别断裂活动方式值得进一步研究。     

Smoothing and re-roughening processes: The geometric evolution of a single fault zone

The geometry of a fault zone exerts a major control on earthquake rupture processes and source parameters. Observations previously compiled from multiple faults suggest that fault surface shape evolves with displacement, but the specific processes driving the evolution of fault geometry within a single fault zone are not well understood. Here, we characterize the deformation history and geometry of an extraordinarily well-exposed fault using maps of cross-sectional exposures constructed with the Structure from Motion photogrammetric method. The La Quinta Fault, located in southern California, experienced at least three phases of deformation. Multiple layers of ultracataclasite formed during the most recent phase. Crosscutting relations between the layers define the evolution of the structures and demonstrate that new layers formed successively during the deformation history. Wear processes such as grain plucking from one layer into a younger layer and truncation of asperities at layer edges indicate that the layers were slip zones and the contacts between them slip surfaces. Slip surfaces that were not reactivated or modified after they were abandoned exhibit self-affine geometry, preserving the fault roughness from different stages of faulting. Roughness varies little between surfaces, except the last slip zone to form in the fault, which is the smoothest. This layer contains a distinct mineral assemblage, indicating that the composition of the fault rock exerts a control on roughness. In contrast, the similar roughness of the older slip zones, which have comparable mineralogy but clearly crosscut one another, suggests that as the fault matured the roughness of the active slip surface stayed approximately constant. Wear processes affected these layers, so for roughness to stay constant the roughening and smoothing effects of fault slip must have been approximately balanced. These observations suggest fault surface evolution occurs by nucleation of new surfaces and wear by competing smoothing and re-roughening processes.     

A microstructural study of fault rocks from the SAFOD: Implications for the deformation mechanisms and strength of the creeping segment of the San Andreas Fault

The San Andreas Fault zone in central California accommodates tectonic strain by stable slip and microseismic activity. We study microstructural controls of strength and deformation in the fault using core samples provided by the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) including gouge corresponding to presently active shearing intervals in the main borehole. The methods of study include high-resolution optical and electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence mapping, X-ray powder diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, white light interferometry, and image processing.The fault zone at the SAFOD site consists of a strongly deformed and foliated core zone that includes 2–3 m thick active shear zones, surrounded by less deformed rocks. Results suggest deformation and foliation of the core zone outside the active shear zones by alternating cataclasis and pressure solution mechanisms. The active shear zones, considered zones of large-scale shear localization, appear to be associated with an abundance of weak phases including smectite clays, serpentinite alteration products, and amorphous material. We suggest that deformation along the active shear zones is by a granular-type flow mechanism that involves frictional sliding of microlithons along phyllosilicate-rich Riedel shear surfaces as well as stress-driven diffusive mass transfer. The microstructural data may be interpreted to suggest that deformation in the active shear zones is strongly displacement-weakening. The fault creeps because the velocity strengthening weak gouge in the active shear zones is being sheared without strong restrengthening mechanisms such as cementation or fracture sealing. Possible mechanisms for the observed microseismicity in the creeping segment of the SAF include local high fluid pressure build-ups, hard asperity development by fracture-and-seal cycles, and stress build-up due to slip zone undulations.     

Lower friction of the Xianshuihe–Xiaojiang fault system and its effect on active deformation around the south‐eastern Tibetan margin

We use three‐dimensional mechanical modelling with fault as Coulomb‐type frictional surface to explore the active deformation of the Xianshuihe–Xiaojiang fault system in south‐eastern Tibet. Crustal rheology is simplified as an elastoplastic upper crust and a viscoelastic lower crust. Far‐field GPS velocities and Quaternary fault slip rates are used to constrain the model results. Numerical experiments show that effective fault friction lower than ∼0.1–0.08 leads to a high slip rate that fits well with geological estimates of the slip rate on the fault system. Associating with the modelled fault slip rate, strain in the surrounding crust distributes broadly, and is partitioned into strike–slip and thrust senses. This means that in the Indian‐Eurasia convergence, accommodation of the large fraction of sinistral motion on the fault system is achieved mainly due to its lower fault friction. This in turn affects crustal deformation around the south‐eastern Tibetan margin, resulting in negligible compression across the Longmen Shan.     

准噶尔盆地南缘断裂带显微构造特征与活动时代

对准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯-玛纳斯-吐谷鲁逆断裂带中的断层泥和构造岩显微构造进行了研究,并对断裂带中的石膏、石英脉和断层泥进行了ESR测年。显微构造研究表明,断裂带至少经历了3期构造变形,断层泥和石英碎粒中既发育有线状擦痕、阶步等粘滑活动显微构造,也发育有剪切滑动、定向排列等蠕滑活动变形现象。ESR测年结果显示,霍尔果斯-玛纳斯-吐谷鲁逆断裂带形成于1.5Ma前,在0.4~1.0 Ma和0.08~0.12 Ma期间进行了二次再调整。断裂活动时间与青藏高原阶段性隆升的时间一致,说明准噶尔盆地南缘霍尔果斯-玛纳斯-吐谷鲁逆断裂带的形成与青藏高原的隆升过程密切相关。      

The role of bedding in the evolution of meso- and microstructural fabrics in fault zones

To investigate the role of bedding in the evolution of meso- and microstructural fabrics in fault zones, detailed microscopic, mineralogical, and geochemical analyses were conducted on bedding-oblique and bedding-parallel faults that cut a folded Neogene siliceous mudstone that contains opal-CT, smectite, and illite. An analysis of asymmetric structures in the fault gouges indicates that the secondary fractures associated with each fault exhibit contrasting characteristics: those of the bedding-oblique fault are R₁ shears, whereas those of the bedding-parallel fault are reactivated S foliation. The bedding-oblique fault shows the pervasive development of S foliation, lacks opal-CT, and has low SiO₂/TiO₂ ratios only in gouge, whereas the bedding-parallel fault exhibits these characteristics in both gouge and wall rocks. The development of S foliation and the lack of silica can result from local ductile deformation involving the sliding of phyllosilicates, coupled with pressure solution of opal-CT. Although such deformation can occur in gouge, the above results indicate that it may occur preferentially along bedding planes, preceding the formation of a gouge/slip surface. Thus, in sedimentary rocks that contain phyllosilicates and soluble minerals, bedding can influence the rheological evolution of meso- and microstructural fabrics in fault zones.     

Microscopic characteristics of orthoquartzite from sliding friction experiments. I. Sliding surface

Optical and TEM observations were made on the active surfaces of the sliding blocks from orthoquartzite subjected to sliding friction experiments (Hayes, 1975; Dunn and Hayes, 1975) at a constant effective confining pressure of 500 bars and a shortening rate of 2.5 · 10⁻⁵ s⁻¹, dry and in the presence of pore fluids. Surface-wear features show that the sequence in the destruction of the sliding surface is: (a) penetration, ploughing, and immediate shearing off of brittle asperities to produce gouge, (b) formation of cracks at grain boundaries and intragranular cracks, facilitating shearing of asperities, and forming pluckouts and a rough or smooth sliding surface. Microcracks occurring and terminating in dislocation-free regions indicate that crack growth through dislocation coalescence of pre-existing dislocations is invalid for orthoquartzite at room temperature.     

Shear zones in clay-rich fault gouge: A laboratory study of fabric development and evolution

Clay-rich fault rocks have long been recognized to host distinctive fabric elements, and fault rock fabric is increasingly thought to play a fundamental role in fault mechanical behaviour in the brittle regime. Although the geometries of fabric elements in fault gouges have been described for almost a century, the genesis and evolution of these elements during shear, and their links to bulk mechanical properties, remain poorly understood. We characterize the development and evolution of fabric elements with increasing shear in a variety of clay-rich experimental gouges over shear strains of <1 to >20 and at normal stresses of 2–150 MPa in the double-direct shear configuration. In addition to SEM observations of experiment products at a variety of shear strains, we quantified clay fabric intensity and the degree of grain size reduction using X-ray Texture Goniometry (XTG) and particle size distribution (PSD) measurements. We also measured P- and S-wave velocities during shear to further probe the evolution of shear fabric and gouge properties. We find that clay fabric elements develop in a systematic manner regardless of the gouge material. Riedel shears in the R₁ orientation and boundary-parallel shears are the dominant fabric elements. Riedel shears nucleate at layer margins and propagate into the layer shortly after reaching yield stress. Clay particles rotate into the P-orientation shortly after Riedels propagate through the layer. The Riedel shears are through-going, but are >10× thinner than similar zones observed in coarser granular materials. Our results suggest that the weakness of clay-rich fault gouge may be less a function of anisotropic crystal structure, as has been suggested previously, and more a consequence of very thin shear surfaces permitting deformation in clay-rich materials with minimal dilation or cataclasis. The very thin shear surfaces are a function of the fine grain size of the materials and possibly polymodal PSD's.     

Clay-smear continuity and normal fault zone geometry – First results from excavated sandbox models

The continuity of clay-rich fault gouge has a large effect on fluid transmissibility of faults in sand–clay sequences, but clay gouge continuity and composition in 3D are not well known. We report observations of 3D clay smear continuity in water-saturated sandbox experiments where the sheared clay layers were excavated after deformation. The experiments build on existing work on the evolution of clay gouge in similar 2D experiments where interpretations were made in profile view.We used well-known model materials (“Benchmark” sand and uncemented kaolinite–sand mixtures) that were further characterized using standardized geotechnical tests and triaxial compression experiments at effective pressures corresponding to the sandbox experiments. Results show a nonlinear failure envelope of the sand, in agreement with existing models. Unconfined compression experiments with the clay show cohesion around 50 Pa and brittle behavior.A sheared, ductile clay layer embedded in sand above a 70° dipping basement fault reveals a complex, natural-looking clay gouge architecture with relay ramps, breached relays and fault lenses. The clay gouge shows clear variations in composition and thickness and becomes locally discontinuous at throw-thickness ratios above 7, in contrast to our earlier 2D observations where discontinuous clay-gouge only formed in cemented clay layers. In addition to tectonic telescoping in the relays, the thin, continuous parts of the clay gouge were transformed from an initial pure clay by mechanical mixing of sand and clay.We also discuss the applicability of these results to the evolution of normal fault zones and deformation bands in sand–clay sequences at effective pressures below the onset of cataclasis and conclude that in fault zones a higher degree of internal segmentation reduces the probability of the formation of discontinuities.     

Fractal dimension of molten surfaces as a possible parameter to infer the slip-weakening distance of faults from natural pseudotachylytes

High-velocity friction experiments on gabbro and monzodiorite, using a rotary-shear high-velocity friction apparatus, have revealed that frictional melting and progressive growth of a molten layer along a fault cause slip weakening, eventually reaching a nearly steady-state. The melting surface at the host rock/molten layer interface is initially very flat, but it becomes more complex and rounded in shape towards the steady state owing to the selective melting of minerals with lower melting points and the Gibbs–Thomson effect. This change in the melting-surface topography can be quantitatively expressed by the fractal dimension D, as determined by the divider method, from about 1.0 near the peak friction to around 1.1 near the steady-state friction. The ultimate fractal dimension at steady-state friction tends to decrease with increasing heat production rate presumably due to more rapid and uniform melting. A systematic correlation of D with mechanical behavior of the fault during frictional melting may provide a way of estimating slip-weakening distance and heat production rate at steady-state friction by measuring D for natural pseudotachylytes on slip surfaces with different displacements. The weakening distance is of vital significance in relation to fault instability and the heat production rate is related to the fault strength. The experimental studies point to ways to estimate these difficult quantities for natural faults.     

The origin of large or great thrust-type earthquakes along subducting plate boundaries

Seismicity, deformation, state of stress, and abundance of fluids along subducting plate boundaries are reviewed, and the origin of large or great thrust-type earthquakes is discussed based on the recent experimental results on the slip behavior of halite and serpentine gouges.Shallow subducting plate boundaries above 20–25 km in depth are characterized by low seismicity, low tectonic stress, inter-plate decoupling, ductile deformation associated with the formation of metamorphic schistosity (except at very shallow depths), metamorphism suggesting solution processes on massive scale, and presence of abundant H₂O. It is argued that these unique features are due to pressure-solution processes, to high fluid pressure, to low strength and stable behavior of clayey sediments under wet environments, and/or to the deformation of soft, unconsolidated sediments at very shallow depths. The low seismicity in this zone is in marked contrast with major strike-slip faults along which large earthquakes occur at depths shallower than 15–20 km. It is emphasized that these unique features are expected only for restricted regions where there is constant supply of H₂O due to progressive metamorphism or where fluids in the rocks are trapped and cannot escape to the surface.Large or great thrust-type earthquakes in subduction zones initiate at depths of 30–50 km, below the shallow decoupled zone. In this focal depth range, the supply of H₂O during progressive metamorphism perhaps diminishes downwards, the overriding and subducting plates are coupled and stick to each other during much of the inter-seismic period, and the resistance to slip (or shear stress) is presumably high. It is suggested that these earthquakes begin to occur at a depth where the plate-boundary zone becomes fairly dry. Deformation at these depths appears to be predominantly ductile, so that the earthquakes cannot be regarded simply as a brittle phenomenon. (1) Creep instability i.e., instability associated with plastic deformation, and (2) dehydration-induced instability are the most likely mechanisms for initiating the earthquakes, and both have some experimental support. Stick-slip of halite gouge while undergoing ductile deformation primarily by intracrystalline gliding is described and discussed as a supporting evidence for (1). Shear resistance of halite gouge increases with increasing confining pressure in stick-slip regimes. Hence the observed stick-slip may be a semi-brittle phenomenon with respect to the pressure dependence of the shear resistance, although the deformation texture cannot be distinguished from that formed by pressure-insensitive flow. Serpentine gouge exhibits violent stick-slip upon its decomposition under dry, not wet, environments, supporting the mechanism (2) above. Exact mechanisms which lead to the unstable fault motion are poorly understood as yet, but stick-slip of both halite and serpentine gouges is recognized only when the slip-rate dependence of friction is negative i.e., lower friction at faster slip rate, consistent with the theoretical prediction of Rice and Ruina (1983). There is a possibility that the thrust-type earthquakes can be explained essentially within the framework of fault constitutive laws developed by Dieterich (1979) and Ruina (1983).     

Clay–clast aggregates in fault gouge: An unequivocal indicator of seismic faulting at shallow depths?

A common problem encountered in studies of gouge-bearing natural faults is the difficulty of ascertaining whether the observed gouge was sheared seismically or aseismically; this problem arises because of the scarcity of indicators of fault slip rates for gouge. Recently, clay–clast aggregates (CCAs; a CCA comprises a clastic core mantled by a rim of ultrafine particles) were proposed as a possible indicator of seismic slip in gouge, on the basis of shear experiments on gouge at seismic slip rates. To examine the processes and conditions of CCA formation, we conducted rotary shear experiments on quartz and quartz–bentonite gouges under normal stresses (0.3–3.0 MPa) and slip rates (0.0005–1.3 m s⁻¹), and in both room-humidity (room-dry) and water-saturated (wet) conditions. We found that CCAs could be produced in room-dry gouges even at the lowest slip rates, which are considerably slower than actual seismic slip rates. This finding demonstrates that thermal pressurization and fluidization at elevated temperature during seismic slip are not necessarily needed for the formation of CCAs, contrary to previous views. Given the occurrence of CCAs over a wide range of slip rates, we suggest that the presence of CCAs is not an unequivocal indicator of fault slip at seismic slip rates.     

汶川地震地表破裂面形貌特征

准确描述破裂面形貌对于我们理解地震断层作用是非常重要的,破裂面的形貌特征包含许多关于地震和断层机制的有用信息。在Mw7.9 2008汶川地震中断层活动产生了两个新鲜的破裂面,八角庙破裂面和沙坝破裂面。我们使用3D便携式激光扫描仪(Tri mble GX)对两个破裂表面进行测量,在野外微观尺度上研究了破裂面形貌特征。通过能谱密度和均方值两个方法分析破裂面形貌,新鲜的破裂面表现为自相仿性,能谱密度和均方值均与剖面长度存在幂律关系。在能谱密度与空间频率的对数图中,能谱密度曲线存在明显的拐点,该拐点所对应的波长称为"特征波长",表明单一分形不能准确描述破裂面形貌。八角庙破裂面在平行滑动方向上的特征波长为7 mm,在垂直方向上特征波长略大一些(区域Ⅰ为10 mm,区域Ⅱ为9 mm);沙坝破裂面在平行滑动方向上的特征波长为8 mm,但垂直方向上特征波长略小(6 mm)。均方值曲线的最小二乘拟合直线的斜率为Hurst指数,该指数依赖于剖面线方向并描述破裂面形貌的各向异性,H指数的最小值和最大值分别与平行擦痕和垂直擦痕方向对应,这与野外断层面擦痕测量结果一致。沙坝破裂面的H指数极坐标图中存在次级H指数峰值(对应剖面线方向为85°和160°),这揭示破裂面上存在一组隐匿擦痕。该组隐匿擦痕为汶川地震之前断层活动中形成的,但这还不足以推测上一次断层活动的时间和规模。另外,通过比较新鲜节理面和破裂面表明H指数是否大于0.8反映了断层类型。在整个空间频率域上,能谱密度曲线斜率(-α)和均方值曲线斜率(H)的线性拟合关系为α=1.22+1.72H,并不严格满足两者之间理论关系式,α=1+2H。这个差异是由于测量信号噪音、破裂面的多分形性和分析方法的差异造成的。     

Cataclasites along the Saltville thrust,U.S.A. and their implications for thrust-sheet emplacement

Cataclasis and frictional wear are the primary bulk deformation mechanisms along steeply dipping portions of the Saltville thrust in the southern Appalachian foreland zone, U.S.A. Fault character ranges from a single discrete sliding surface with negligible gouge, to a zone of several discrete sliding surfaces or a zone (up to 0.3 m thick) of pervasive cataclasite. Marked fracturing occurs up to 20 m above the fault, whereas minimal deformation is found in the footwall rocks. Hanging wall dolomites range from crush breccias (less than 5% matrix) to ultracataclasites (with 90% matrix), although cataclasites (50–70% matrix) are predominant. Foliated cataclasites occur where dolomite is thrust over shale. Progressive development of cataclastic fabrics is due to comminution by fracturing and grinding along intersecting fractures. Continued frictional grinding results in complete disruption of the original fabric to produce cataclasite and minor ultracataclasite. Grain alignment occurs by rigid body rotation with subsequent local enhancement by pressure-solution. Microstructural relations of the fault gouge suggest periodic fluctuations in fluid pressure, where λ_v (ratio of fluid to overburden pressure) probably ranged between 0.45 and 1. The Saltville thrust-sheet emplacement must have occurred in a caterpillar-like fashion involving aseismic and seismic shear. Shear stresses accompanying fault motion as determined from dolomite twin lamellae are in the order of 65 mPa.