Cambrian skeletal halite crystals and experimental analogues

A suite of unusual highly skeletal halite pseudomorphs is described from the lower Middle Cambrian rocks that crop out at Ardmore in the Georgina Basin, northern Australia. The pseudomorphs are preserved as both moulds and casts within a dark and light colour-banded chert. They are orientated parallel to bedding and represent halite crystal growth within a brine pool. Laterally equivalent rocks are characterized by sedimentary textures and structures indicative of periodic emergence and desiccation. Laboratory grown halite crystals are also described and compared with the pseudomorphs from Ardmore. Experimentally produced halite crystals formed from either: (1) brine solutions obtained as residues after organic matter extraction from phosphate rocks, or (2) solutions of NaCI and distilled water. Both pyramidal rafted hoppers and floor nucleated cuboids formed in solutions containing only NaCI and distilled water; whereas in the residue solutions, that contained humic acids, rafted pyramidal forms were absent and crystal nucleation was restricted to the floor of the evaporative dish. As brine depth decreased the halite precipitation rate increased and resulted in a suite of excrescent, highly skeletal crystals that formed as a result of brine evaporation to dryness. The variable crystal morphology depended upon both the brine depth and slope of the evaporative dish floor. Horizontally orientated chevron halite crystals formed where the evaporative dish was inclined and precipitation preferentially occurred on cube faces. Pagoda, reticulate ridge and dendritic forms represent an increasingly skeletal crystal suite characterized by the preferential precipitation of NaCI on cube edges and corners rather than faces. Using the experimentally grown crystals as analogues the pseudomorphs at Ardmore are interpreted as forming in very shallow brine pools that evaporated to dryness.     

Late-glacial and post-glacial deposition in a large, low relief, epicontinental basin: the northern Baltic Sea

This paper presents a model of late‐glacial and post‐glacial deposition for the late‐Neogene sedimentary succession of the Archipelago Sea in the northern Baltic Sea. Four genetically related facies associations are described: (i) an ice‐proximal, acoustically stratified draped unit of glaciolacustrine rhythmites; (ii) an onlapping basin‐fill unit of rotated rhythmite clasts in an acoustically transparent to chaotic matrix interpreted as debris‐flow deposits; (iii) an ice‐distal, acoustically stratified to transparent, draped unit of post‐glacial lacustrine, weakly laminated to homogeneous deposits; and (iv) an acoustically stratified to transparent unit of brackish‐water, organic‐rich sediment drifts. The debris‐flow deposits of the unit 2 pass laterally into slide scars that truncate the unit 1; they are interpreted to result from a time interval of intense seismic activity due to bedrock stress release shortly after deglaciation of the area. Ice‐berg scouring and gravitational failure of oversteepened depositional slopes may also have contributed to the debris‐flow deposition. Comparisons to other late‐Neogene glaciated basins, such as the Hudson Bay or glacial lakes formed along the Laurentide ice sheet, suggest that the Archipelago Sea succession may record development typical for the deglaciation phase of large, low relief, epicontinental basins. The Carboniferous–Permian glacigenic Dwyka Formation in South Africa may provide an ancient analogue for the studied succession. Chronological control for the studied sediments is provided by the independent palaeomagnetic and AMS‐¹⁴C dating methods. In order to facilitate dating of the organic‐poor early post‐glacial deposits of the northern Baltic Sea, the 10 000 year long Lake Nautajärvi palaeomagnetic reference chronology ( Ojala & Saarinen, 2002 ) is extended by 1200 years.     

Arsenic variability and groundwater age in three water supply wells in southeast New Hampshire

Three wells in New Hampshire were sampled bimonthly over three years to evaluate the temporal variability of arsenic concentrations and groundwater age.All samples had measurable concentrations of arsenic throughout the entire sampling period and concentrations in individual wells had a mean variation of more than 7 μg/L.The time series data from this sampling effort showed that arsenic concentrations ranged from a median of 4 μg/L in a glacial aquifer well(SGW-65)to medians of 19μg/L and37 μg/L in wells(SGW-93 and KFW-87)screened in the bedrock aquifer,respectively.These high arsenic concentrations were associated with the consistently high pH(median≥8)and low dissolved oxygen(median0.1 mg/L)in the bedrock aquifer wells,which is typical of fractured crystalline bedrock aquifers in New Hampshire.Groundwater from the glacial aquifer often has high dissolved oxygen,but in this case was consistently low.The pH also is generally acidic in the glacial aquifer but in this case was slightly alkaline(median = 7.5).Also,sorption sites may be more abundant in glacial aquifer deposits than in fractured bedrock which may contribute to lower arsenic concentrations.Mean groundwater ages were less than 50 years old in all three wells and correlated with conservative tracer concentrations,such as chloride;however,mean age was not directly correlated with arsenic concentrations.Arsenic concentrations at KFW-87 did correlate with water levels,in addition,there was a seasonal pattern,which suggests that either the timing of or multiple sampling efforts may be important to define the full range of arsenic concentrations in domestic bedrock wells.Since geochemically reduced conditions and alkaline pHs are common to both bedrock and glacial aquifer wells in this study,groundwater age correlates less strongly with arsenic concentrations than geochemical conditions.There also is evidence of direct hydraulic connection between the glacial and bedrock aquifers,which can influence arsenic concentrations.Correlations between arsenic concentrations and the age of the old fraction of water in SGW-65 and the age of the young fraction of water in SGW-93 suggest that water in the two aquifers may be mixing or at least some of the deeper,older water captured by the glacial aquifer well may be from a similar source as the shallow young groundwater from the bedrock aquifer.The contrast in arsenic concentrations in the two aquifers may be because of increased adsorption capacity of glacio-fluvial sediments,which can limit contaminants more than fractured rock.In addition,this study illustrates that long residence times are not necessary to achieve more geochemically evolved conditions such as high pH and reduced conditions as is typically found with older water in other regions.     

Hydrogeology of a montane headwater groundwater system downgradient of a coal-mine waste rock dump: Elk Valley,British Columbia,Canada

Steelmaking-coal waste rock placed in mountain catchments in the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada, drain constituents of interest (CIs) to surface water downgradient of the waste rock dumps. The role of groundwater in transporting CIs in the headwaters of mountain catchments is not well understood. This study characterizes the physical hydrogeology of a portion of a 10-km² headwater catchment (West Line Creek) downgradient of a 2.7-km² waste rock dump placed over a natural headwater valley-bottom groundwater system. The study site was instrumented with 13 monitoring wells. Drill core samples were collected to determine subsurface lithology and geotechnical properties. The groundwater system was characterized using field testing and water-level monitoring. The valley-bottom sediments were composed of unconsolidated glacial and meltwater successions (<64 m thick) deposited as a series of cut and fill structures overlying shale bedrock. An unconfined basal alluvial aquifer located above fractured bedrock was identified as the primary conduit for groundwater flow toward Line Creek (650 m from the toe of the dump). Discharge through the basal alluvial aquifer was estimated using the geometric mean hydraulic conductivity (±1 standard deviation). These calculations suggest groundwater discharge could account for approximately 15% (ranging from 2 to 60%) of the total water discharged from the watershed. The residence time from the base of the waste rock dump to Line Creek was estimated at <3 years. The groundwater system was defined as a snowmelt (i.e., nival) regime dominated by direct recharge (percolation of precipitation) across the catchment.     

Hydraulic relationships between buried valley sediments of the glacial drift and adjacent bedrock formations in northeastern Ohio,USA

Buried valleys are ancient river or stream valleys that predate the recent glaciation and since have been filled with glacial till and/or outwash. Outwash deposits are known to store and transmit large amounts of groundwater. In addition to their intrinsic hydraulic properties, their productivity depends on their hydraulic relationships with the adjacent bedrock formations. These relationships are examined using a steady-state three-dimensional groundwater flow model through a section of a buried valley in northeastern Ohio, USA. The flow domain was divided into five hydrostratigraphic units: low-conductivity (K) till, high-K outwash, and three bedrock units (Pottsville Formation, Cuyahoga Group and Berea Sandstone). The model input was prepared using the data from well logs and drilling reports of residential water wells. The model was calibrated using observed heads with mean residual head error of 0.3 m. The calibrated model was used to quantify flux between the buried valley and bedrock formations. Mass balance was calculated to within an error of 2–3 %. Mass balance of the buried valley layer indicates that it receives 1.6 Mm³/year (≈40 % of the total inflow) from the adjacent bedrock aquifers: Pottsville Formation contributes 0.96 Mm³/year (60 %) while the Berea Sandstone 0.64 Mm³/year (40 %).     

老挝甘蒙省钾镁盐矿床含矿段的矿物学和地球化学特征及成因

老挝甘蒙省钾镁盐矿床位于呵叻盆地的东隅,本文以该矿床ZK318钻孔的含矿段———下盐层为研究对象,对其开展了系统的矿物学和地球化学特征研究。结果表明,矿石矿物以石盐、钾石盐和光卤石为主,含少量方硼石和硬石膏。根据矿物与主量元素的分布特征,将下盐层分为5个次层,由下至上顺序为:盐岩层(石盐为主)→钾盐岩层(钾石盐为主)→光卤石岩层(光卤石为主)→薄盐岩层(石盐为主)→钾盐岩层(钾石盐为主)。微量元素Br值均大于200×10-6,表明卤水来源于海水;由盐岩层→钾盐岩层→光卤石岩层,B含量呈现出逐渐升高的趋势,表明B含量与卤水盐度呈线性关系。但顶部钾盐岩层的B含量高达890×10-6,与少量方硼石的存在相吻合,指示成矿卤水除了海水外,还有深部热液的贡献。按照卤化物卤水蒸发浓缩的顺序,光卤石是该卤水浓缩的最后阶段,但在光卤石沉积之后,又晶出一薄层石盐,表明曾经历过一次短暂的淡水补给。上、下两层钾石盐具有基本相同的Br含量,分别为1 790×10-6和1 792×10-6,且均直接沉积在石盐之上,故为原生钾石盐,而非光卤石的次生淋滤产物。认为甘蒙省钾镁盐矿床为海源陆相沉积,海水和深部热液是成钾物质的主要来源,钻孔中出露的两层钾石盐均为原生沉积。     

Depositional environments of marine-dominated bedded halite, Permian San Andres Formation, Texas

The interpretation of the depositional environments in which bedded halite is formed is a frontier of evaporite sedimentology. Facies studies, supplemented by geochemical data, define an evaporite shelf depositional environment for the halite of the San Andres Formation of the Palo Duro Basin, Texas Panhandle, that is significantly different from modern and previously described ancient halite-precipitating environments such as playas, salinas, sabkhas, and barred basins. A coastal palaeoenvironmental setting for the San Andres halite is defined by its facies position between normal marine-shelf carbonates and aeolian deposits. The San Andres brine pool extended over more than 10 000 km² but was very shallow. Perennial brine-pool conditions (thick sequences of halite) alternated with ephemeral brine-pool conditions (halite, haloturbated mudstone-halite, mudstone interbeds, and microkarst). The depositional sequence in the perennial brine pool includes (1) flooding and minor dissolution of previously deposited halite, (2) precipitation of a thin lamina of gypsum, and (3) evaporation and precipitation of halite. Bottom-growth forms of halite, including chevrons and vertically elongated crystals, are well preserved. Cumulates of foundered, floating crystals and rafts were probably abundant but have been almost completely recrystallized. Mudstone interbeds in halite and microkarst features cut into bedded halite record the episodic interruption of brine-pool deposition and the establishment of subaerial conditions. Vertically elongated karst pits originate at the palaeosurfaces, cross-cut primary brine-pool fabrics, and are filled with geopetal sediment and coarse halite cement. Mudstone interbeds and mixtures of mudstone and halite have been haloturbated by the alternating growth and dissolution of halite reflecting conditions of fluctuating salinity. The geochemistry of halite from both ephemeral and perennial brine-pool environments reflects the frequent influx of marine brine, indicating that communication with the marine environments to the south was ‘good’ considering that restriction was sufficient to precipitate halite.     

柴达木盆地西部地下卤水水化学特征及其起源演化

柴达木盆地西北角分布有基岩,盆地西部分布山麓堆积及河、湖相沉积地层,新生界发育有多个北西—南东走向的规模不一的背斜,新近系分布有富钾地下卤水。利用统计方法分析卤水中TDS、K+和B2O3的富集情况。结果显示：TDS值出现双峰,卤水样品富K+和B3+的概率分别为628%和6129%。使用Piper图研究地下卤水时,经常出现样品点过于集中而不易反映主要离子含量的变化。本次研究改进了前人的图示方法,绘制适合于表示地下卤水的水化学图。利用钠氯系数、氯溴系数、氯碘系数、钾氯系数、脱硫系数、钙镁系数对研究区卤水水样进行分析,结果显示卤水样品多数未达到石盐沉积,少数达到石盐沉积。研究区水样氢、氧稳定同位素数据显示新近系地下卤水δ18O值和δD值均发生漂移,表明卤水经历长时间的蒸发浓缩。研究区地下卤水起源于早上新世的古大气降水,上新世以后由于青藏高原快速隆升,柴达木盆地抬升和沉降中心东移,接受沉积形成良好的盖层,同时大气环流的改变致使气候变得干燥,地下卤水经历蒸发浓缩封存,形成现今的卤水。     

Groundwater quality variations in glacial drift and bedrock aquifers,Barry County,Michigan, U.S.A.

Groundwater samples from 288 domestic wells in Barry County, Michigan, were analyzed for 33 inorganic chemical parameters. Variations in chemical composition were investigated by considering the possible effects of human impact, aquifer type (bedrock vs glacial drift), chemical evolution along groundwater flow paths, and glacial landform type (moraine vs outwash). Approximately 25 percent of the glacial drift wells were classified as degraded by human impact and were excluded from further analysis of chemical variation. Two-sample tests comparing individual concentrations from drift and bedrock aquifers suggest that groundwater in the Marshall Sandstone aquifer is derived from local recharge through the glacial drift. This conclusion is supported by generalized groundwater flow patterns recognized for the two aquifers.Concentrations in both aquifers were examined in relation to generalized flow paths derived from water level data and also by classification of wells as recharge, transition, and discharge. No spatial concentration trends in major ions were detected, although iron concentrations do appear to increase from recharge to discharge areas. Declining redox potential along groundwater flow paths may explain this trend.The possible influence of glacial landform type was investigated by comparing concentrations of wells in moraines with those in outwash deposits. Wells in moraines have significantly higher concentrations of most parameters, perhaps due to higher content of finer, more chemically reactive sediment grains.     

Comparison of age distributions estimated from environmental tracers by using binary-dilution and numerical models of fractured and folded karst: Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and West Virginia, USA

Measured concentrations of environmental tracers in spring discharge from a karst aquifer in the Shenandoah Valley, USA, were used to refine a numerical groundwater flow model. The karst aquifer is folded and faulted carbonate bedrock dominated by diffuse flow along fractures. The numerical model represented bedrock structure and discrete features (fault zones and springs). Concentrations of ³H, ³He, ⁴He, and CFC-113 in spring discharge were interpreted as binary dilutions of young (0–8  years) water and old (tracer-free) water. Simulated mixtures of groundwater are derived from young water flowing along shallow paths, with the addition of old water flowing along deeper paths through the model domain that discharge to springs along fault zones. The simulated median age of young water discharged from springs (5.7  years) is slightly older than the median age estimated from ³H/³He data (4.4  years). The numerical model predicted a fraction of old water in spring discharge (0.07) that was half that determined by the binary-dilution model using the ³H/³He apparent age and ³H and CFC-113 data (0.14). This difference suggests that faults and lineaments are more numerous or extensive than those mapped and included in the numerical model.     

新疆罗布泊盐湖氢氧锶硫同位素地球化学及钾矿成矿物质来源

罗布泊罗北凹地第四系上部盐层中蕴藏丰富的卤水,卤水中则富含钾（ＫＣｌ平均品位为１．４０％）。文章通过对罗布泊卤水氢、氧、锶及硫同位素等分析及与塔里木盆地（河流）、柴达木盆地等地区对比研究,确定了罗布泊富钾卤水源于地表水,可能主要是塔里木盆地南北缘河流水;卤水中的硫钾等物质组分主要来源于南天山、塔里木盆地西北、西南部中新生代石膏钙芒硝石盐矿床或地层及其古代地层卤水。由于第四纪期间塔里木盆地西部抬升。     

Glacial deposits at Wylfa Head,Anglesey, North Wales: Evidence for Late Devensian deposition in a non-marine environment

The nature and origin of glacial sediments at Wylfa Head are described, and their significance with regard to sedimentary environments during Late Devensian deglaciation of the Irish Sea Basin is discussed. Recent models of deglaciation under glaciomarine conditions are challenged. The Quaternary sequence at Wylfa consists of eroded and glaciotectonically deformed bedrock, locally derived lodgement till, calcareous silt-rich lodgement till containing northern erratics, discontinuous units of orange-brown silty sand of possible aeolian origin, and grey laminated freshwater silts filling a small kettle hole. The till units thicken to the south where the surface is drumlinised. It is concluded that the landforms and deposits result from a warm-based Irish Sea glacier, which moved towards the southwest. Spatial variation in basal water pressure resulted from localised drainage through zones of more heavily jointed bedrock. Rapid glacial erosion occurred in areas where subglacial water pressure was relatively high, while deposition of the resulting basal sediment took place where water pressures were reduced. The glacier also carried basal calcareous silty till onshore, which was deposited by lodgement processes. None of the deposits at Wylfa are interpreted as glaciomarine in origin, and there is no evidence at this site for an isostatically induced marine transgression prior to deglaciation.     

Modern halite sedimentation processes and depositional environments,Hutt Lagoon,Western Australia

Abstract

Contemporary layered halite in the Hutt Lagoon, Western Australia, forms distinct precipitational and clastic fades, which are ascribed to seasonal ponding and playa development in the lagoon respectively. Field and laboratory documentation of the halite types and monitoring of surface water chemistry for several annual hydrologic cycles indicate that following evaporative concentration of ponded seawater halite layers, characterized by zoned and clear halite crystal varieties, are developed. During early stages of annual playa development, vadose solution and precipitation appear to be most active within and above the capillary fringe zone, causing diagenetic modification of the halite textures, fabrics and structures. Ultimately, clastic halite facies are produced by wind reworking of the earlier deposits, in response to progressive evaporative drawdown of the brine level in the main depression area of the lagoon.

The co-existence of the halite precipitates and clastites is related to a dynamic equilibrium in the water budget of the Hutt Lagoon. This equilibrium is best exemplified by limitation of brine level fluctuations to a narrow repetitive zone. Identification of similar early diagenetic features, such as vadose solution, precipitation, overgrowth, replacement and mechanical reworking of surface halite sediments, in ancient evaporite deposits may aid in a better understanding of the role of brine level fluctuation on genesis and diagenesis of subaqueous/subaerial halite.     

新疆库车盆地吉迪克组的地层时代和沉积环境

库盆地吉迪组分布十分广泛,它是储油层和油、气田的盖层,主要由碎屑岩或碎屑岩与石膏岩的互层组成,沉积厚度301.4-1081m。这套地层中富含有孔虫、介形类、抱粉、轮藻和腹足类等化石,通过古生物群的分折研究,可确定其沉积时代为中新世,更确切地说为中新世早、中期。通过沉积物特征和古生物群中广海、底栖有孔虫,咸水型介形类,水生植物抱粉和沟鞭藻等门类的分析,大致可确定沉积物的物源主要来自盆地北部的南天山山脉。沉积物颗粒自北向南由粗变细,水体中的含盐度自西向东逐渐升高,沉积了石膏、石盐和钙芒硝等盐类物质;推测在中新世早、中期库车盆地可能与塔里木盆地西部的喀什-乌恰-带残留海相连通。     

Origin and geochemistry of Miocene marine evaporites associated with red beds: Great Kavir Basin,Central Iran

During the Cenozoic numerous shallow epicontinental evaporite basins formed due to tectonic movements in the Northern Province of the Central Iran Tectonic Zone (the Great Kavir Basin). During the Miocene, due to sea‐level fluctuations, thick sequences of evaporites and carbonates accumulated in these basins that subsequently were overlain by continental red beds. Development of halite evaporites with substantial thickness in this area implies inflow of seawater along the narrow continental rift axis. The early ocean basin development was initiated in Early Eocene time and continued up to the Middle Miocene in the isolated failed rift arms. Competition between marine and non‐marine environments, at the edge of the encroaching sea, produced several sequences of both abrupt and gradual transition from continental wadi sediments to marginal marine evaporites in the studied area. These evaporites show well‐preserved textures indicative of relatively shallow‐brine pools. The high Br content of these evaporites indicates marine‐derived parent brines that were under the sporadic influence of freshening by meteoric water or replenishing seawater. However, the association of hopper and cornet textures denotes stratified brine that filled a relatively large pool and prevented rapid variations in the Br profile. Unstable basin conditions that triggered modification of parent brine chemistry prevailed in this basin and caused variable distribution patterns for different elements in the chloride units. The presence of sylvite and the absence of Mg‐sulphate/chlorides in the paragenetic sequence indicate SO₄−depleted parent brine in the studied sequence. Petrographic examinations along with geochemical analyses on these potash‐bearing halites reveal parental brines which were a mixture of seawater and CaCl₂‐rich brines. The source of CaCl₂‐rich brines is ascribed to the presence of local rift systems in the Great Kavir Basin up to the end of the Early Miocene. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neogene evaporites in desert volcanic environments: Atacama Desert, northern Chile

The Upper Miocene and Pliocene evaporite deposits of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile (Hilaricos and Soledad Formations) are among the few non‐marine evaporites in which aridity not only formed the deposits, but has also preserved them almost unaltered under near‐surface conditions. These deposits are largely composed of displacive Ca sulphate and halite together with minor amounts of glauberite, thenardite and polyhalite. However, at the base and top of these deposits, there are also beds of gypsum crystal pseudomorphs that originally formed as free‐growth forms within shallow brine bodies, rather than as displacive sediments. The halite is present as interstitial cement, displacive cubes and shallow‐water, bottom‐growth chevron crusts. Most of the calcium sulphate is presently anhydrite, pseudomorphous after gypsum, that was the primary depositional sulphate mineral. The secondary anhydrite formed under early diagenetic conditions after slight burial (some metres) resulting from the effect of strongly evolved pore brines. The anhydrite has been preserved without rehydration during late diagenetic and exhumation stages on account of the arid environment of the Atacama Desert. Both the Hilaricos and the Soledad Formations contain geochemical markers indicating that these Neogene evaporites had a largely non‐marine origin. Bromine content in the halite is very low (few p.p.m.), indicating neither a sedimentological relation with sea water nor the likelihood of direct recycling of prior marine halites. Moreover, the δ³⁴S of sulphates (+4·5‰ to +9‰) also reflects a non‐marine origin, with a strong volcanic influence, although some recycling of Mesozoic marine sulphates cannot be ruled out. δ³⁴S of dissolved sulphate from hot springs and streams in the area commonly displays positive values (+2‰ to +10‰). Leaching of oxidized sulphur and chlorine compounds from volcanoes and epithermal ore bodies, very common in the associated drainage areas, have been the main contribution to the accumulation of evaporites. The sedimentary and diagenetic evolution of the Hilaricos and Soledad evaporites (based on lithofacies analysis) provides information about the palaeohydrological conditions in the Central Depression of northern Chile during the Neogene. In addition, the diagenesis and exhumation history of these evaporites confirms the persistence of strongly arid conditions from Late Miocene until the present. A final phase of tectonism took place permitting the internal drainage to change and open to the sea, resulting in dissolution and removal of a significant portion of these deposits. Despite the extensive dissolution, the remaining evaporites have undergone little late exhumational hydration.     

Origin of brine in the Kangan gasfield: isotopic and hydrogeochemical approaches

The Kangan Permo-Triassic brine aquifer and the overlying gas reservoir in the southern Iran are located in Kangan and Dalan Formations, consisting dominantly of limestone, dolomite, and to a lesser extent, shale and anhydrite. The gasfield, 2,900 m in depth and is exploited by 36 wells, some of which produce high salinity water. The produced water gradually changed from fresh to saline, causing severe corrosion in the pipelines and well head facilities. The present research aims to identify the origin of this saline water (brine), as a vital step to manage saline water issues. The major and minor ions, as well as δ²H, δ¹⁸O and δ³⁷Cl isotopes were measured in the Kangan aquifer water and/or the saline produced waters. The potential processes causing salinity can be halite dissolution, membrane filtration, and evaporation of water. The potential sources of water may be meteoric, present or paleo-seawater. The Na/Cl and I/Cl ratios versus Cl^? concentration preclude halite dissolution. Concentrations of Cl, Na, and total dissolved solid were compared with Br concentration, indicating that the evaporated ancient seawater trapped in the structure is the cause of salinization. δ¹⁸O isotope enrichment in the Kangan aquifer water is due to both seawater evaporation and interaction with carbonate rocks. The δ³⁷Cl isotope content also supports the idea of evaporated ancient seawater as the origin of salinity. Membrane filtration is rejected as a possible source of salinity based on the hydrochemistry data, the δ¹⁸O value, and incapability of this process to dramatically enhance salinity up to the observed value of 330,000 mg/L. The overlaying impermeable formations, high pressure in the gas reservoir, and the presence of a cap rock above the Kangan gasfield, all prevent the downward flow of meteoric and Persian Gulf waters into the Kangan aquifer. The evaporated ancient seawater is autochthonous, because the Kangan brine aquifer was formed by entrapment of brine seawater during the deposition of carbonates, gypsum, and minor clastic rocks in a lagoon and sabkha environment. The reliability of determining the source of salinity in a deep complicated inaccessible high-pressure aquifer can be improved by combining various methods of hydrochemistry, isotope, hydrodynamics, hydrogeology and geological settings.     

Identifying sources of salinization using hydrochemical and isotopic techniques, Konarsiah, Iran

Konarsiah salt diapir is situated in the Simply Folded Zone of the Zagros Mountain, south Iran. Eight small permanent brine springs emerge from the Konarsiah salt body, with average total dissolved solids of 326.7 g/L. There are numerous brackish to saline springs emerging from the alluvial and karst aquifers adjacent to the diapir. Concerning emergence of Konarsiah diapir in the study area, halite dissolution is the most probable source of salinity in the adjacent aquifers. However, other sources including evaporation and deep brines through deep Mangerak Fault are possible. The water samples of the study area were classified based on their water-type, salinity, and the trend of the ions concentration curves. The result of this classification is in agreement with the hydrogeological setting of the study area. The hydrochemical and isotopic evaluations show that the groundwater samples are the result of mixing of four end members; Gachsaran sulfate water, Sarvak and Asmari carbonate fresh waters, and diapir brine. The molar ratios of Na/Cl, Li/Cl, Br/Cl, and SO₄/Cl; and isotopic signature of the mixed samples justify a groundwater mixing model for the aquifers adjacent to the salt diapir. The share of brine in each adjacent aquifer was calculated using Cl mass balance. In addition, concentrations of 34 trace elements were determined to characterize the diapir brine and to identify the possible tracers of salinity sources in the mixed water samples. B, Mn, Rb, Sr, Cs, Tl, and Te were identified as trace elements evidencing contact of groundwater with the salt diapir.     

Goat Paddock,Western Australia: an impact crater near the simple – complex transition

Goat Paddock in northern Western Australia is a ～5 km-diameter impact crater of Eocene age excavated in gently dipping Proterozoic sandstones. Roughly radial gorges formed by post-impact erosion provide cross-sectional views of the wall and rim zone. The predominant structural theme is one of synclinal rim folding with broad zones in which bedrock strata were deformed by impact to steep, vertical and overturned attitudes. Impact breccia is found craterward of deformed bedrock, on top of it, and downdropped into fault troughs roughly concentric to the crater. The bedrock?–?breccia contact is sharp in some places and gradational in others. In at least one section, the entire mass of upturned bedrock and breccia was displaced radially over essentially undisturbed bedrock, as indicated by slickensides on the horizontal contact. Talus deposits are similar to breccia, but show rough size sorting and clast orientation that dips steeply craterward, indicating that the talus formed as slides down the oversteepened crater wall immediately after crater formation. Shatter cones in some clasts indicate that allogenic material is incorporated in these deposits. Suevite, characterised by ropy flow textures, and by microclasts of quartz with planar deformation features, planar fractures, and of vesiculated silica glass, was found overlying deformed bedrock at a point where the surface of the bedrock forms a nearly horizontal bench midway up the crater wall. The crater was at least partially filled by later sediments, represented by bedded conglomerate close to the crater wall grading inward to sand, silt and mudstone recovered by drillholes on the crater floor. Some of the talus and conglomerate occupy re-entrants in the crater walls, suggesting an original scalloped outline to the crater. Two drillholes, one central and one halfway to the wall, both reached brecciated sandstone after penetrating 210 m of lake sediments. Goat Paddock has a flat floor with no indication of a central uplift and a depth/diameter ratio of ～0.073. This crater form, coupled with the modification of the crater walls by slumping and the scalloped outline of the crater rim suggests that Goat Paddock bridges the two traditional classes of impact crater: simple and complex.     

罗布泊盐湖富钾卤水成因再探讨——碎屑层卤水蒸发实验分析

罗布泊盐湖钙芒硝岩孔隙中蕴藏有超大型规模的卤水钾矿,富钾卤水成因一直备受关注。罗北凹地从统一的罗布泊大湖区中分隔出来后,成盐过程中其湖水仍以南部大湖的补给为主,罗北凹地卤水化学演化与"大耳朵"湖水密切相关。"大耳朵"湖区含石膏碎屑层普遍储藏有卤水,应该是罗北凹地盐湖的"源卤水",钾离子(ρ(K~+)为3.12 g/L左右)已初步富集,平均矿化度为198.83 g/L。为了查明该卤水的化学演化趋势及析盐序列,笔者于2009年、2010年两次采集了大量卤水样品,分别进行室内等温蒸发和自然蒸发实验。蒸发实验结果表明:随着卤水浓缩首先析出(硬)石膏,随后析出大量石盐,最后出现少量钾石盐和光卤石,与EQL/EVP卤水蒸发模型模拟结果相似。将碎屑层卤水蒸发过程中化学组成变化与罗北凹地卤水进行对比,结果显示罗布泊古湖水蒸发至石膏沉积之后,在罗北凹地水化学组成明显发生变化,没有大量石盐沉积,而以钙芒硝沉积为主。推测应是受到深部"富钙水"的持续补给,而"大耳朵"湖起到"预备盆地"的作用,罗布泊古湖水经"大耳朵"湖蒸发浓缩后,钾离子得到初步富集,在流入罗北凹地后与深部"富钙"水混合,强烈蒸发浓缩,大量钙芒硝矿物析出,最后形成富钾卤水。