The geography of Canadian interlocking directorates: how do they relate to brain circulation?

This study examines the spatiality of interlocking directorates of Canadian companies, with particular emphasis given to international interlocks. From a geographical standpoint, do these connections to foreign firms reinforce the importance of Canada’s top corporate cities as ‘gateways’ to international business? Is there a geography associated with the interlocking to these gateway cities? Findings build on James O. Wheeler’s body of research focused on corporate headquarters. This study is placed within the context of the current economic geography dialogue. Particular focus is placed on Saxenian’s theory of brain circulation, wherein she argues that individuals with international experience serve as brokers linking domestic businesses with those in distant regions. A further purpose of this study then is to examine Saxenian’s argument in the context of Canadian corporations. First, is there a geographical association between directors’ foreign educations and where Canadian firms are interlocked to internationally? Second, the corporate performance of Canadian firms interlocked internationally will be measured against those firms that are not. It seems logical to assume that increased connections would yield more diverse and rich knowledge, which could lead to better decisions, and thus corporate performance, in today’s global world. But does it? This study finds that being linked to an international company through a common director did translate into more profitability for Canadian firms. Findings also revealed a geographical link between international interlocks and a director’s foreign education. However, when Canadian firms were interlocked with an international company with a director who had international education, greater profits did not necessarily result.     

企业出口产品多元化模式与地方产品结构

自2001年中国加入世界贸易组织(WTO)后,产品多元化日益成为中国企业发展的重要策略。当前关于企业产品多元化的研究忽视了外部影响因素的作用。论文利用中国海关贸易数据库,探讨了地方出口产品结构对企业出口产品多元化的影响。研究发现：① 地方产品结构会影响企业的产品多元化模式。所处地方的产品不相关多元化程度越高,企业的产品不相关多元化程度越高;所处地方的产品相关多元化程度越高,企业的产品相关多元化程度也会越高。② 由于产品知识来源的差异,生产不同产品企业的产品多元化模式受地方产品结构的影响不同。例如,比起交通运输设备制造企业,鞋帽制造企业的产品(不)相关多元化受地方出口产品的(不)相关多元化的促进作用更强。③ 内、外资企业的产品多元化模式受地方产品结构的影响存在差异。这可能是因为内、外资企业联系程度不同,所以地方出口产品(不)相关多元化对内资企业产品(不)相关多元化的促进作用比对外资企业的作用更强。     

The Export Behavior of Small Canadian Manufacturing Firms*

This paper reports on a survey of the export behavior of small Canadian manufacturing firms. An analysis of tables (ANOTA) model is used to describe the relationship between export performance and market characteristics. The export transactions of these firms are also examined using ANOTA and latent class analysis. The relationship between export experience and geographic diversification predicted by stages of development models is confirmed. In addition, two types of export transactions are identified: (1) active exports that help firms reach a market of sufficient size and (2) passive exports in response to demand from foreign customers.     

长三角城市群电子信息制造业的空间集聚及生产绩效研究

以长三角城市群27个地级以上城市的电子信息制造业为研究对象,采用2004—2013年中国工业企业数据,利用EG集聚指数、核密度分析法、空间自相关和分位数回归模型,实证分析长三角电子信息制造业的空间集聚特征和及其发展绩效的影响因素。结果表明：长三角电子信息制造业呈现先集中后均衡的空间集聚,整体稳定在低集聚区间;长三角城市群电子信息制造业在相邻空间单位中具有空间正相关特点;集聚经济、政策支持等因素对不同企业绩效水平产生差异化影响。对于中低绩效企业而言,政策支持的促进效应大于集聚经济,对于高绩效企业而言,集聚经济的促进效应由于政策支持,内部规模经济对各绩效水平企业均呈促进效应。     

北京市外资制造企业的区位分析

基于第二次基本单位普查资料,采用OPM模型分析北京制造业外资企业的区位行为。研究表明,外资企业的集聚程度由城内向外显著递减,依托交通干线和开发区,外资企业已经扩散到了北京的郊区县,推动了制造业的郊区化发展。统计结果显示,企业、产业和集聚因素共同决定了制造业外资企业的区位选择。规模较大的、新建的外资企业倾向于近郊区,而多种经营的、独资的企业则偏好城内,尤其在二~四环之间,集聚经济推动了制造业外资企业的郊区化。外资企业的区位行为存在显著的产业差异。     

Exploring Regional Firm-Size Structure in Canadian Housebuilding: Ontario, 1991 and 1996

This paper is concerned with the regional firm-size structure of housebuilding in Canada based on a case study of the province of Ontario. Using an innovative database of builders in Ontario and geographic information systems, measures of regional firm-size structure are developed and are modeled with data from the Canadian census. The results corroborate established models in the city systems and industrial organization literatures in that industrial concentration is negatively associated with regional population size, economic diversity, and economic performance. Small housebuilding firms abound in large, diverse and economically vibrant regions, especially large urban regions, and thereby maintain industrial deconcentration.     

Spatial Mismatch and Determinants of Foreign and Domestic Information and Communication Technology Firms in Urban China

Studies on foreign direct investment locations in China have been conducted mainly at interregional and interprovincial scales, and little attention has been paid to the intraurban scale where location decisions of foreign firms can differ from domestic firms. This article explores the intraurban locations of information and communication technology (ICT) firms in Suzhou, a city experiencing rapid globalization. We have found that the distribution of ICT firms in Suzhou exhibits distinctive spatial patterns characterized by a geographically based, institutionally created spatial mismatch between foreign and domestic firms. Foreign firms are concentrated in national-level development zones—China–Singapore Suzhou Industrial Park in the east and Suzhou New and Hi-Tech District in the west—whereas domestic firms tend to agglomerate in the inner city and the provincial-level development zone in the north. Poisson and negative binomial analyses further reveal that the locations of foreign firms are strongly correlated to development zones, and the agglomeration economies derived from the stock of foreign investment rather than domestic firms. The case of Suzhou highlights the challenges that Chinese cities face in industrial upgrading and technological development through embedding transnational corporations.     

中国风电设备制造业发展与空间格局研究

区域新兴产业的发展是经济地理学的关注重点。尤其在全球气候变化和能源危机背景下,新能源产业的发展和区位特征备受关注。本文选取风电设备制造这一战略性新兴产业作为研究对象,根据2005-2012年《中国风电装机容量统计》整理了中国风电设备制造企业数据库,发现中国的内资风电设备制造企业大多由相关装备制造业企业投资设立,并位于投资企业所在城市;外资风电设备制造企业倾向于布局在装备制造业基础雄厚的城市。风电设备制造业企业的空间扩展即子公司主要集中在三北(东北、华北和西北)和东部沿海等风力资源丰富和风电场重点建设的地区。在实证部分,利用零膨胀负二项模型探讨中国风电设备企业及其子公司区位选择的影响因素,结果表明：①风力资源禀赋主要影响风电设备企业子公司的区位选择,风力资源丰富的地区城市风电设备企业子公司个数较多;②产业基础主要影响风电设备企业母公司区位选择;③地方政府支持主要影响风电设备企业子公司的区位选择;④风力资源禀赋、产业基础和地方政府支持同时作用时,产业基础是最重要的影响因素。研究结果对风电设备企业的区位选择和地方政府有针对性的产业政策制定有指导意义。     

Spatial and Sectoral Patterns of Firm Entry in China

This article provides new empirical evidence on the patterns of firm entry across sectors and space. Based on Pavitt’s four manufacturing industry categories—supplier-dominated, scale-intensive, specialized suppliers, and knowledge-based—we use China’s firm-level database, covering all manufacturing firms with sales above 5 million RMB from 1998 to 2008, to investigate the relation between spatial patterns of new entry firms and industrial structure change and firm heterogeneity. Based on our analysis, there are three key findings. First, industrial structure change plays an important role in influencing the sectoral pattern of new firm entry. Second, the transformation from a supplier-dominated industry to a scale-intensive industry from 1998 to 2008 in China has largely influenced spatial patterns of new entry firms (mainly spatial agglomeration and entry similarity between regions). Third, the heterogeneity of firms (mainly firm ownership, firm size, and technological relatedness) affected the location choice of new entry firms. Based on our findings, we conclude that the importance of industrial structure change and the heterogeneity of firms in revealing the spatial pattern of new entry firms should receive more attention. Key Words: China, firm entry, firm heterogeneity, industrial structure change, sectoral and spatial pattern.     

城市内部研发密集型制造业的空间分布与区位选择模式——以北京、上海为例

基于微观企业数据对北京和上海研发密集型制造业空间分布的特征和影响因素进行分析,进而揭示其区位选择模式差异。研究发现,北京企业集中分布特征明显,热点区主要位于核心城区及近郊的少数地区,并形成以中关村-上地为中心的集聚格局;上海企业表现为集中与扩散并存,热点区在郊环线以里区域零散布局,并形成以漕河泾和张江为双核的联动共生集聚格局;北京和上海企业均存在开发区和交通指向性以及路径依赖,与此同时,上海企业还具有学研机构和老工业区指向性以及郊区化现象,北京企业则出现逆郊区化。研发密集型制造业在北京和上海分别形成以开发区为空间载体的“紧凑型-中心性”模式和以开发区、学研机构和老工业区为多元空间载体的“离散型-郊区化”模式。不同行业企业基本符合总体特征,但又呈现一定的特殊性。     

德国在华知识密集制造业投资进入方式的时空特征及区位影响因素

外资知识密集型制造业进入中国市场,对中国制造业升级转型起着一定的作用。本文围绕区域制度环境和区域吸收能力,探讨影响知识密集型企业进入方式的区域环境,旨在揭示知识密集型产业的外商进入方式的地理驱动机制,有利于加深理解在经济发展方式转型的时代背景下,区域与城市获得外生技术发展动力的机制。采用从1982-2014年德国在华投资企业数据库,结果发现,德国知识密集型制造企业在中国的投资呈现由沿海地区向内陆地区扩张、沿海中心城市向周边城市扩散的时空趋势,并且在1995年后,其进入方式从合资为主向独资为主转变。逻辑计量模型显示,德国知识密集型制造企业的进入方式受到多项区位因子的影响,其中地方人力资源水平和产业专业化水平是知识密集型制造企业选择以合资方式的进入中国市场的重要区位因素,表明区域知识吸收能力是形成全球—地方战略协同的关键变量;另一方面,实际使用外资存量和地方专利授权量这两个区位影响因素则会显著促成知识密集型制造企业采用独资的进入决策,反映了区域制度环境对吸引以知识产权保护为战略核心的知识密集型制造业的作用。     

The Urban Geography of Subsidiary Headquarters in North America: Explorations by sector and Foreign Linkage

The complexity of the firm is a hallmark of the current economy. Corporate subsidiaries and their headquarters are a key expression of the development of businesses today. The analysis presented here extends on previous subsidiary research by analyzing the evolving headquarters location of foreign and domestic subsidiaries in the United States and Canada from 1996 to 2004. This study finds that certain U.S. and Canadian sectors are home to disproportionate numbers of subsidiaries. It also shows that different sectors in each country have seen major changes in their subsidiary communities, that foreign and domestic subsidiaries in the United States and Canada exhibit distinctive geographies, and that parent corporations from various countries follow distinctive strategies in locating their U.S. and Canadian subsidiary headquarters. The study argues that this line of research is one component in the strengthening of theory related to the location of elite corporate activities.     

Environmental Governance and Shifts in Canadian Biofuel Production and Innovation

Canada's adoption of international climate commitments, national emissions standards, and incentive programs drove expansion of biofuel production using available first-generation technologies in feedstock-rich regions. Market saturation and the emergence of second-generation technologies shifted government support away from first-generation technologies, placing pressure on regional production clusters. This article analyzes how Canadian biofuel firms restructured their value-chain activities in response to those technological and policy changes. The ability to access technologies and navigate multiscalar policy contexts shapes restructuring. Geographic patterns of cellulosic innovation are identified, and the role of firms and policy in regional industrial reorganization is discussed.     

MANUFACTURING LOCATION IN A POLYCENTRIC URBAN AREA: A STUDY IN THE COMPOSITION AND ATTRACTIVENESS OF EMPLOYMENT SUBCENTERS

Attention has shifted to the role of subsidiary urban centers as the new “spatial nodes” within metropolitan areas as manufacturing employment has dispersed away from its traditional central city locations over the past decades. Understanding the character and evolving functions of these new “centers” is crucial to predicting (or influencing) future metropolitan spatial patterns. This paper explores the nature and role of the principal employment centers within the Dallas-Fort Worth region from the perspective of locational choices by firms in three-digit SIC Manufacturing. First the centers are empirically identified via a methodology that “maps” employment land-use polygons onto a zip code-level geography. The industrial attributes of firms choosing such centers are then investigated using multinomial logit. The general attractiveness to firms in manufacturing of various spatial characteristics of these centers are next studied through a discrete choice framework. Finally, a “mixed” conditional logit model is specified and implemented to identify special affinities between a type of firm and a kind of location. Results of the exercise enable judgment on the utility of the employment center concept and on industrial location behavior in a modem urban context.     

北京典型行业微区位选址比较研究——以北京企业管理服务业和汽车制造业为例

以微观企业数据为基础,采用核密度空间平滑和条件逻辑选择模型等方法,重点关注企业在城市内部微观尺度下的区位选择,并对北京典型现代服务业和制造业区位选择的差异进行对比分析。结果表明：① 北京中小型制造企业倾向于在集聚区分布,符合马歇尔式产业集群的特征,而服务业则是大型企业更倾向于集中布局;② 尽管微观尺度下多样化和上下游产业链对现代服务业和制造业依然有重要影响,但是与宏观尺度下不同的是对于现代服务业来说过度多样化并不利于其发展,对于制造业来说区域专业化劳动力规模而非专业化程度更为重要;③ 政府对地铁等公共设施布局选址将对现代服务业的微观区位产生重要影响。     

虚拟经济时代世界经济格局的新变化

在分析经济全球化背景下虚拟经济产生与发展的基础上,选取货币地位、证券化率、外贸依存度、制造业比重、跨国间接投资等指标,采用系统聚类方法,对美国、英国、日本、德国、加拿大、法国、俄罗斯、中国、印度等9个国家进行聚类分析,得到世界经济格局大致可以分为三个层次的结果。其中美国、英国其货币地位、证券化率和跨国间接投资比重较高,属于虚拟化国家;加拿大和德国、法国各项指标基本处于中间水平,属于半虚拟化国家,日本虚拟化水平低于虚拟化国家而高于半国家,可以将其合并到半虚拟化国家;俄罗斯和中国、印度及其他发展中国家的外贸依存度、制造业比重较高,属于未虚拟化国家。根据对中国——最大的未虚拟化国家研究,提出了保持实体经济优势地位,利用虚拟化国家资金和技术,发展与半虚拟化国家的贸易,加快经济发展方式大转变和产业结构调整的建议。     

产业地理集聚与外商直接投资产业分布——以北京市制造业为例

外商直接投资理论强调跨国公司的垄断优势和东道国的区位优势决定外商直接投资的产业分布。本文认为外商直接投资的产业分布还可能取决于因产业地理集聚和地方化贸易所形成的竞争优势。本文采用1999~2004年北京外商直接投资的产业流资料建立面板数据回归模型,引入产业地理集聚系数、产业联系等变量来研究影响外资产业分布的因素。统计分析表明,在空间上比较集聚、产业内联系较强的产业能够吸引更多的外商直接投资;前期外商投资对于跟进投资具有显著的示范效应、信息溢出效应以及产业联系效应,从而直接导致外资的产业累积效应。外商也强烈偏好资本技术密集型产业以及在国际市场上具有显著比较优势、盈利率高的产业。外商在充分利用其垄断优势、产业比较优势和竞争优势的同时,也尽量避开实际劳动成本较高和进入壁垒较高的垄断性产业。本文的结果显示,发挥本地优势,完善产业配套,促成产业集群是提升城市吸引外商直接投资的有效途径。     

外资企业的环境溢出对内资企业污染排放强度的影响

在中国全面对外开放和可持续发展的背景下,本文从微观尺度探究了外资企业集聚的环境溢出效应。利用1999—2012年中国工业企业污染数据库和中国工业企业数据库,本文对比了外资和内资企业二氧化硫和化学需氧量排放强度的时空差异和演变过程,并建立计量模型探究外资企业的环境溢出效应及其作用途径。研究发现：① 在研究时段内,中国工业企业的二氧化硫和化学需氧量排放总量呈现逐渐下降的趋势,该现象来源于内资企业排放总量的下降,而外资企业的排放总量未发生明显变化。② 内资企业的二氧化硫和化学需氧量排放强度迅速下降,并逐渐接近外资企业的排放强度。中国内资企业二氧化硫和化学需氧量排放强度较低的区域主要分布在沿海经济发达的地区,而内陆地区的排放强度下降幅度较大。③ 实证结果表明,无论是产业内还是产业间,外资企业的地理集聚均能够显著降低内资企业的污染排放强度,但是产业内溢出的作用比产业间的溢出更显著。外资企业的环境溢出效应可以通过三条途径作用于内资企业,分别是劳动力流动、竞争效应和本地生产网络的嵌入。在本地生产网络的嵌入方面,后向效应能够产生环境溢出效应,而前向效应并不显著。从异质性分析来看,相对于高效率的企业,低效率的企业仅能够从劳动力流动或本地生产网络嵌入中获取环境溢出的外部性。     

制造业生产率研究进展

中国正经历着由“制造业大国”向“制造业强国”的转型,制造业生产率的提升关系着中国在全球产业链分工中的地位。从地理学和经济学的视角,对制造业生产率的概念界定与发展、制造业生产率的来源及制造业生产率的增长路径等方面的相关理论进行回顾,在此基础上,指出不同阶段理论研究存在的缺陷和不足,以及下一阶段研究的改进方向;进而通过对国内外制造业生产率实证研究的梳理,发现中国制造业生产率研究已取得了卓有成效的进展。然而,国内研究缺乏本土化的制造业生产率研究的理论体系;研究方法缺乏突破;中国特有的经济体制、制造业成长的历史背景、地理分布和政策环境等特征在实证研究中尚未得到充分的挖掘和解析。未来中国制造业生产率的研究需要建立中国制造业生产率的理论研究体系,拓展研究方法,关注在当今全球产业链分工体系下以及国际国内产业转移的背景下制造业生产率来源和增长路径的演化特征及趋势,并加强对实践指导和政策参考方面的延伸。     

中国房地产外资的区位选择及空间转移

2006 年以来,房地产业成为流入中国的外商直接投资集中的主要行业之一。对这一时期中国35 个重点城市的房地产外资区位进行分析,发现房地产外资集中的地区仍分布在北京、上海、广州等特大型城市,但同时表现出向长江沿岸地区及东北地区的核心城市等内陆地区转移的趋势。面板Tobit 模型的计量结果表明,内资企业的竞争是导致房地产外资区位变化的重要因素。内资企业的竞争优势迫使房地产外资放弃利润率最高的最优区位,转而寻求利润率较低、而市场需求较大的次优区位。各重点城市间土地市场化程度差异的迅速缩小使得房地产外资能够自由选择区位,为房地产外资的这一空间转移策略提供了制度保障。