Evaluation of actual evapotranspiration measured by large-scale weighing lysimeters in a humid alpine meadow,northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

The accurate estimation of evapotranspiration (ET) is essential for assessing water availability and requirements of regional-scale terrestrial ecosystems, and for understanding the hydrological cycle in alpine ecosystems. In this study, two large-scale weighing lysimeters were employed to estimate the magnitude and dynamics of actual evapotranspiration in a humid alpine Kobresia meadow from January 2018 to December 2019 on the northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). The results showed that daily ET_a averaged 2.24 ± 0.10 mm day ⁻¹ throughout the study period, with values of 3.89 ± 0.14 and 0.81 ± 0.06 mm day⁻¹ during the growing season and non-growing season, respectively. The cumulative ET_a during the study period was 937.39 mm, exceeding precipitation (684.20 mm) received at the site during the same period by 37%, suggesting that almost all precipitation in the lysimeters was returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. Furthermore, the cumulative ET_a (805.04 mm) was almost equal to the maximum potential evapotranspiration estimated by the FAO-56 reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) (801.94 mm) during the growing season, but the cumulative ET_a (132.25 mm) was 113.72% less than the minimum equilibrium ET_eq) (282.86 mm) during the non-growing season due to the limited surface moisture in frozen soil. The crop coefficient (K_c) also showed a distinct seasonal pattern, with a monthly average of 1.01 during the growing season. Structural equation model (SEM) and boosted regression tree (BRT) show that net radiation and air temperature were the most important factors affecting daily ET_a during the whole study period and growing season, but that non-growing season ET_a was dominated by soil water content and net radiation. The daily K_c was dominated by net radiation. Furthermore, both ET_a and K_c were also affected by aboveground biomass.     

Eddy covariance‐based evapotranspiration for a subtropical wetland

The eddy covariance (EC) method was used in a 30‐month study to quantify evapotranspiration (ET) and vegetation coefficient (K_CW) for a wetland on a ranch in subtropical south Florida. To evaluate the errors in ET estimates, the EC‐based ET (ET_C‐EC) and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) Penman–Monteith (PM) based ET (ET_C‐PM) estimates (with literature crop coefficient, K_C) were compared with each other. The ET_C‐EC and FAO‐PM reference ET were used to develop K_CW. Regression models were developed to estimate K_CW using climatic and hydrologic variables. Annual and daily ET_C‐EC values were 1152 and 3.27 mm, respectively. The FAO‐PM model underestimated ET by 25% with ET_C‐EC being statistically higher than ET_C‐PM. The K_CW varied from 0.79 (December) to 1.06 (November). The mean K_CW for the dry (November–April) season (0.95) was much higher than values reported for wetlands in literature; whereas for the wet (May–October) season, K_CW (0.97) was closer to literature values. Higher than expected K_CW values during the dry season were due to higher temperature, lower humidity and perennial wetland vegetation. Regression analyses showed that factors affecting the K_CW were different during the dry (soil moisture, temperature and relative humidity) and wet (net radiation, inundation and wind speed) seasons. Separate regression models for the dry and wet seasons were developed. Evapotranspiration and K_CW from this study, one of the first for the agricultural wetlands in subtropical environment, will help improve the ET estimates for similar wetlands. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Drip irrigation enhances shallow groundwater contribution to crop water consumption in an arid area

Shallow groundwater plays a key role in agro‐hydrological processes of arid areas. Groundwater often supplies a necessary part of the water requirement of crops and surrounding native vegetation, such as groundwater‐dependent ecosystems. However, the impact of water‐saving irrigation on cropland water balance, such as the contribution of shallow groundwater to field evapotranspiration, requires further investigation. Increased understanding of quantitative evaluation of field‐scale water productivity under different irrigation methods aids policy and decision‐making. In this study, high‐resolution water table depth and soil water content in field maize were monitored under conditions of flood irrigation (FI) and drip irrigation (DI), respectively. Groundwater evapotranspiration (ET_g) was estimated by the combination of the water table fluctuation method and an empirical groundwater–soil–atmosphere continuum model. The results indicate that daily ET_g at different growth stages varies under the two irrigation methods. Between two consecutive irrigation events of the FI site, daily ET_g rate increases from zero to greater than that of the DI site. Maize under DI steadily consumes more groundwater than FI, accounting for 16.4% and 14.5% of ET_a, respectively. Overall, FI recharges groundwater, whereas DI extracts water from shallow groundwater. The yield under DI increases compared with that under FI, with less ET_a (526 mm) compared with FI (578 mm), and irrigation water productivity improves from 3.51 kg m^?3 (FI) to 4.58 kg m^?3 (DI) through reducing deep drainage and soil evaporation by DI. These results highlight the critical role of irrigation method and groundwater on crop water consumption and productivity. This study provides important information to aid the development of agricultural irrigation schemes in arid areas with shallow groundwater.     

Evaluation of uncalibrated energy balance model (BAITSSS) for estimating evapotranspiration in a semiarid,advective climate

The backward‐averaged iterative two‐source surface temperature and energy balance solution (BAITSSS) model was developed to calculate evapotranspiration (ET) at point to regional scales. The BAITSSS model is driven by micrometeorological data and vegetation indices and simulates the water and energy balance of the soil and canopy sources separately, using the Jarvis model to calculate canopy resistance. The BAITSSS model has undergone limited testing in Idaho, United States. We conducted a blind test of the BAITSSS model without prior calibration for ET against weighing lysimeter measurements, net radiation, and surface temperature of drought‐tolerant corn (Zea mays L. cv. PIO 1151) in a semiarid, advective climate (Bushland, Texas, United States) in 2016. Later in the season (20 days), BAITSSS consistently overestimated ET by up to 3 mm d^?1. For the entire growing season (127 days), simulated versus measured ET resulted in a 7% error in cumulative ET, RMSE = 0.13 mm h^?1, and 1.70 mm d^?1; r² = 0.66 (daily) and r² = 0.84 (hourly); MAE = 0.08 mm h^?1 and 1.24 mm d^?1; and MBE = 0.02 mm h^?1 and 0.58 mm d^?1. The results were comparable with thermally driven instantaneous ET models that required some calibration. Next, the initial soil water boundary condition was reduced, and model revisions were made to resistance terms related to incomplete cover and assumption of canopy senescence. The revisions reduced discrepancies between measured and modelled ET resulting in <1% error in cumulative ET, RMSE = 0.1 mm h^?1, and 1.09 mm d^?1; r² = 0.86 (daily) and r² = 0.90 (hourly); MAE = 0.06 mm h^?1 and 0.79 mm d^?1; and MBE = 0.0 mm h^?1 and 0.17 mm d^?1 and generally mitigated the previous overestimation. The advancement in ET modelling with BAITSSS assists to minimize uncertainties in crop ET modelling in a time series.     

Validation and calibration of solar radiation equations for estimating daily reference evapotranspiration at cool semi-arid and arid locations

ABSTRACT

In this work, the applicability of 12 solar radiation (R_S) estimation models and their impacts on daily reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) estimates using the Penman‐Monteith FAO-56 (PMF-56) method were tested under cool arid and semi-arid conditions in Iran. The results indicated that the average increase in accuracy of the ET_o estimates by the calibrated R_S models, quantified by the decrease in RMSE, was 2.8% and 6.4% for semi-arid and arid climates, respectively. Mean daily deviations in the estimated ET_o by the calibrated R_S equations in semi-arid climates varied from ?0.283?mm/d^-1 for the Glover‐McCulloch model to 0.080?mm/d for the El-Sebaii model, with an average of ?0.109?mm/d^-1, and in arid climates, they ranged from ?0.522?mm/d^-1 for the Samani model to 0.668?mm/d for the El-Sebaii model, with an average of 0.125?mm/d^-1.

Editor D. Koutsyiannis; Associate editor Not assigned     

Spatio‐temporal distribution of actual evapotranspiration in the Indus Basin Irrigation System

Strategic planning of optimal water use requires an accurate assessment of actual evapotranspiration (ET_a) to understand the environmental and hydrological processes of the world's largest contiguous irrigation networks, including the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) in Pakistan. The Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) has been used successfully for accurate estimations of ET_a in different river basins throughout the world. In this study, we examined the application of SEBS using publically available remote sensing data to assess spatial variations in water consumption and to map water stress from daily to annual scales in the IBIS. Ground‐based ET_a was calculated by the advection‐aridity method, from nine meteorological sites, and used to evaluate the intra‐annual seasonality in the hydrological year 2009–2010. In comparison with the advection‐aridity, SEBS computed daily ET_a was slightly underestimated with a bias of ?0.15 mm day^?1 during the kharif (wet; April–September) season, and it was overestimated with a bias of 0.23 mm day^?1 in the rabi (dry; October–March) season. Monthly values of the ET_a estimated by SEBS were significantly (P < 0.05) controlled by mean air temperature and rainfall, among other climatological variables (relative humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed). Because of the seasonal (kharif and rabi) differences in the water and energy budget in the huge canal command areas of the IBIS, ET_a and rainfall were positively correlated in the kharif season and were negatively correlated during the rabi season. In addition, analysis of the evaporation process showed that mixed‐cropping and rice–wheat dominated areas had lower and higher water consumption rates, respectively, in comparison with other cropping systems in the basin. Basin areas under water stress were identified by means of spatial variations in the relative evapotranspiration, which had an average value of 0.59 and 0.42 during the kharif and the rabi seasons, respectively. The hydrological parameters used in this study provide useful information for understanding hydrological processes at different spatial and temporal scales. Results of this study further suggest that the SEBS is useful for evaluation of water resources in semi‐arid to arid regions over longer periods, if the data inputs are carefully handled. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relative contributions of alpine and subalpine ecosystems to the water balance of a mountainous,headwater catchment

Climate change is affecting the hydrology of high‐elevation mountain ecosystems, with implications for ecosystem functioning and water availability to downstream populations. We directly and continuously measured precipitation and evapotranspiration (ET) from both subalpine forest and alpine tundra portions of a single catchment, as well as discharge fluxes at the catchment outlet, to quantify the water balance of a mountainous, headwater catchment in Colorado, USA. Between 2008 and 2012, the water balance closure averaged 90% annually, and the catchment ET was the largest water output at 66% of precipitation. Alpine ET was greatest during the winter, in part because of sublimation from blowing snow, which contributed from 27% to 48% of the alpine, and 6% to 9% of the catchment water balance, respectively. The subalpine ET peaked in summer. Alpine areas generated the majority of the catchment discharge, despite covering only 31% of the catchment area. Although the average annual alpine runoff efficiency (discharge/precipitation; 40%) was greater than the subalpine runoff efficiency (19%), the subalpine runoff efficiency was more sensitive to changes in precipitation. Inter‐annual analysis of the evaporative and dryness indices revealed persistent moisture limitations at the catchment scale, although the alpine alternated between energy‐limited and water‐limited states in wet and dry years. Each ecosystem generally over‐generated discharge relative to that expected from a Budyko‐type model. The alpine and catchment water yields were relatively unaffected by annual meteorological variability, but this interpretation was dependent on the method used to quantify potential ET. Our results indicate that correctly accounting for dissimilar hydrological cycling above and below alpine treeline is critical to quantify the water balance of high‐elevation mountain catchments over periods of meteorological variability. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modelling interannual variations in catchment evapotranspiration considering vegetation and climate seasonality using the Budyko framework

The Budyko framework is an efficient tool for investigating catchment water balance, focusing on the effects of seasonal changes in climate (S) and vegetation cover (M) on catchment evapotranspiration (ET). However, the effects of vegetation seasonality on ET remain largely unknown. The present study explored these effects by modelling interannual variations in ET considering vegetation and climate seasonality using the Budyko framework. Reconstructed 15-day GIMMS NDVI_3g timeseries data from 1982 to 2015 were used to estimate M and extract the relative duration of the vegetation growing season (GL) in the Yellow River Basin (YRB). To characterize S, seasonal variations in precipitation and potential ET were extracted using a Gaussian algorithm. Analysis of the observed datasets for 19 catchments revealed that interannual variation in the catchment parameter ϖ (in Fuh's equation) was significantly and positively correlated with M and GL. Conversely, ϖ was significantly but negatively correlated with S. Furthermore, stepwise linear regression was used to calibrate the empirical formula of ϖ for these three dimensionless parameters. Following validation, based on observations in the remaining 11 catchments, ϖ was integrated into Fuh's equation to accurately estimate annual ET. Over 79% subcatchments showed an upward trend (0.9 mm yr⁻¹), whereas fewer than 21% subcatchments showed a downward trend (−0.5 mm yr⁻¹) across YRB. In the central region of the middle reach, ET increased with increased M, prolonged GL, and decreased S, whereas in the source region of YRB, ET decreased with decreased M and shortened GL. Our study provides an alternative method to estimate interannual ET in ungauged catchments and offers a novel perspective to investigate hydrological responses to vegetation and climate seasonality in the long-term.     

Multidecadal changes in moisture condition during climatic growing period of crops in Northeast China

Investigating the spatiotemporal dynamics of agricultural water status during crop growth season can provide scientific evidences for more efficient use of water resources and sustainable development of agricultural production under climate change. In this study, the following were used to evaluate the multidecadal changes in moisture condition during climatic growth period of crops in Northeast China from 1961 to 2010: (1) the daily climate variables gathered from 101 meteorological stations in Northeast China for 1961–2010; (2) FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) Penman–Monteith equation; (3) 80% guaranteed probability for agro-climatic indicators; and (4) the daily average temperature stably passing 0 °C, which is the threshold temperature of climatic growth period for crops. Reference crop evapotranspiration (ET₀) and relative moisture index were further calculated. The results showed that Northeast China’s climate in the main agricultural areas over the past 50 years was warmer and drier in general, with a growing range and intensity of drought. From 1961 to 2010, when the daily average temperature stably passed 0 °C, the average annual total precipitation (P) and ET₀ with 80% guaranteed probability in Northeast China both emerged as decreasing trends with averages of 555.0 mm and 993.7 mm, respectively. However, the decline in P was greater than that of annual total ET₀. As a result, the annual relative moisture indices sharply decreased with an average of −0.44, mostly fluctuating from −0.59 to −0.25. As far as spatial distributions were concerned, the inter-regional reductions in P and relative moisture index over the past 50 years were conspicuous, especially in some agricultural areas of central Heilongjiang Province, northeastern Jilin Province and northeastern Liaoning Province. On the contrary, ET₀ obviously increased in some agricultural areas of central and northwestern Heilongjiang Province (eg. Qiqiha’er, Shuangyashan, Hegang, Suihua, etc.), and northeastern Jilin Province (eg. Baicheng). This indicated that drought existed and was unfavorable for crop growth and development, especially during the period of 2001–2010. This finding revealed that drought was still one of the most important agricultural meteorological disasters in Northeast China. Some countermeasures should be formulated to adapt to climate change. Our findings have important implications for improving climate change impact studies, for breeding scientists to breed higher yielding cultivars, and for agricultural production to cope with ongoing climate change.     

Evapotranspiration partitioning using a simple isotope‐based model in a semiarid marsh wetland in northeastern China

Partitioning evapotranspiration (ET) into evaporation (E) and transpiration (T) in wetlands is important for understanding the hydrological processes in wetlands and the contribution of wetland ET to local and regional water cycling and for designing effective wetland management strategies. Stable water isotopes are useful in the application of ET partitioning through the evaluation of the isotopic compositions of E (δ_E), T (δ_T), and ET (δ_ET) obtained from observation or modelling methods. However, this approach still suffers from potentially large uncertainties in terms of estimating the isotopic endmembers. In this study, we modified the traditional isotope‐based ET partitioning methods to include leaf‐level biological constraints to separately estimate the relative contributions of T from Scirpus triqueter and Phragmites australis and the relative contributions of E from the standing surface water in a semiarid marsh wetland in northeastern China. The results showed that although the δ_T values of S. triqueter and P. australis were rather similar, the mean δ_T values of the 2 species were different from the values of δ_E, making it possible to distinguish the relative contributions of E and T through the use of isotopes. The simulation of leaf water using a non‐steady‐state model indicated obvious deviations in leaf water enrichment (δ_Lb) from isotopic steady states for both species, especially during early mornings and evenings when relative humidity was highest. The isotopic mass balance showed that E accounted for approximately 60% of ET, and T from S. triqueter and P. australis each contributed approximately 20% to ET; this implied that the transpiration of one reed was equivalent to that of 5.25 individuals of S. triqueter. Using the estimated ratio of T to ET and the measured leaf transpiration, the total ET was estimated to be approximately 10 mm day^?1. Using the NSS‐Tr method, the estimated ET was higher than the water loss calculated from the water level gauge. This indicated that the river water and surrounding groundwater were the sources of the marsh wetland, with a supply rate of 8.3 mm day^?1.     

Estimating water fluxes in the critical zone using water stable isotope approaches in the Groundnut and Ferlo basins of Senegal

Sustainable water management in semi-arid agriculture practices requires quantitative knowledge of water fluxes within the soil-vegetation-atmosphere system. Therefore, we used stable-isotope approaches to evaluate evaporation (E_a), transpiration (T_a), and groundwater recharge (R) at sites in Senegal's Groundnut basin and Ferlo Valley pasture region during the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons of 2021. The approaches were based upon (i) the isothermal evaporation model (for quantifying E_a); (ii) water and isotope mass balances (to partition E_a and T_a for groundnut and pasture); and (iii) the piston displacement method (for estimating R). E_a losses derived from the isothermal evaporation model corresponded primarily to Stage II evaporation, and ranged from 0.02 to 0.09 mm d⁻¹ in the Groundnut basin, versus 0.02–0.11 mm d⁻¹ in Ferlo. At the groundnut site, E_a rates ranged from 0.01 to 0.69 mm d⁻¹; T_a was in the range 0.55–2.29 mm d⁻¹; and the T_a/ET_a ratio was 74%–90%. At the pasture site, the ranges were 0.02–0.39 mm d⁻¹ for E_a; 0.9–1.69 mm d⁻¹ for T_a; and 62–90% for T_a/ET_a. The ET_a value derived for the groundnut site via the isotope approach was similar to those from eddy covariance measurements, and also to the results from the previous validated HYDRUS-1D model. However, the HYDRUS-1D model gave a lower T_a/ET_a ratio (23.2%). The computed groundwater recharge for the groundnut site amounted to less than 2% of the local annual precipitation. Recommendations are made regarding protocols for preventing changes to isotopic compositions of water in samples that are collected in remote arid regions, but must be analysed days later. The article ends with suggestions for studies to follow up on evidence that local aquifers are being recharged via preferential pathways.     

Reference evapotranspiration trends and their sensitivity to climatic change on the Tibetan Plateau (1970–2009)

Evapotranspiration is an important component of the water and energy balance. It is dependent on climate. Precipitation, solar radiation, temperature, humidity, and wind all contribute to the rate of evapotranspiration. In this study, the temporal trends of reference evapotranspiration (ET_ref) and four main ET_ref drivers, namely, mean air temperature (T_a), wind speed (u₂), net radiation (R_n) and actual vapour pressure (e_a) from 1970 to 2009, were calculated based on 75 meteorological stations on the Tibetan Plateau. The results showed that the ET_ref on the Tibetan Plateau decreased on average by 0.6909 mm a^‐1a^‐1 from 1970 to 2009. T_a and e_a showed an increasing trend, whereas u₂ and R_n exhibited a decreasing trend. To explore the underlying causes of the ET_ref variation, an attribution analysis was performed to quantify the contribution of T_a, u₂, R_n and e_a, which showed that the changes in u₂, R_n and e_a produced the negative effect, whereas T_a produced the positive effect on ET_ref rates. The changes in u₂ were found to produce the largest decrease (?0.7 mm) in ET_ref, followed by e_a (?0.4 mm) and R_n (?0.1 mm). Although the significant increase in T_a had a large positive effect (0.51 mm) on ET_ref rates, changes in the other three variables each reduced ET_ref rates, resulting in an overall negative trend in ET_ref. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessment of reference evapotranspiration across an arid urban environment having poor data monitoring system

Estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) in urban areas is challenging but essential in arid urban climates. To evaluate ET₀ in an urban environment and non-urban areas, air temperature and relative humidity were measured at five different sites across the arid city of Isfahan, Iran, over 4 years. Wind speed and sunshine hours were obtained from an urban surrounding weather station over the same period and used to estimate ET₀. Calculated ET₀ was compared with satellite-based ET₀ retrieved from the MOD16A2 PET product. Although MODIS PET was strongly correlated with the Valiantzas equation, it overestimated ET₀ and showed average accuracy (r = 0.93–0.94, RMSE = 1.18–1.28 mm/day, MBE = 0.73–0.84 mm/day). The highest ET₀ differences between an urban green space and a non-urban area were 1.1 and 0.87 mm/day, which were estimated by ground measurements and MODIS PET, respectively. The sensitivity of ET₀ to wind speed and sunshine hours indicated a significant effect on cumulative ET₀ at urban sites compared to the non-urban site, which has a considerable impact on the amount of irrigation required in those areas. Although MODIS PET requires improvement to accurately reflect field level microclimate conditions affecting ET₀, it is beneficial to hydrological applications and water resource managers especially in areas where data is limited. In addition, our results indicated that using limited data methods or meteorological data from regional weather stations, leads to incorrect estimation of ET₀ in urban areas. Therefore, decision-makers and urban planners should consider the importance of precisely estimating ET₀ to optimize management of urban green space irrigation, especially in arid and semi-arid climates such as the city of Isfahan.     

Trend analysis of reference evapotranspiration in Northwest China: The roles of changing wind speed and surface air temperature

Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) is an important element in the water cycle that integrates atmospheric demands and surface conditions, and analysis of changes in ET₀ is of great significance for understanding climate change and its impacts on hydrology. As ET₀ is an integrated effect of climate variables, increases in air temperature should lead to increases in ET₀. However, this effect could be offset by decreases in vapor pressure deficit, wind speed, and solar radiation which lead to the decrease in ET₀. In this study, trends in the Penman–Monteith ET₀ at 80 meteorological stations during 1960–2010 in the driest region of China (Northwest China) were examined. The results show that there was a change point for ET₀ series around the year 1993 based on the Pettitt's test. For the region average, ET₀ decreased from 1960 to 1993 by ?2.34 mm yr^?2, while ET₀ began to increase since 1994 by 4.80 mm yr^?2. A differential equation method based on the Food and Agriculture Organization Penman–Monteith formula was used to attribute the change in ET₀. The attribution results show that the significant decrease in wind speed dominated the change in ET₀, which offset the effect of increasing air temperature and led to the decrease in ET₀ from 1960 to 1993. However, wind speed began to increase, and the amplitude of increase in air temperature also rose significantly since the mid‐1990s. Increases in air temperature and wind speed together reversed the trend in ET₀ and led to the increase in ET₀ since 1994. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of forest cover change on catchment evapotranspiration variation in China

Several large-scale revegetation programs in China have resulted in significant changes in forest cover (ΔF) during the past three decades. As forests have important effects on catchment hydrology, evaluating the effects of ΔF on hydrology is essential. Using data from 44 catchments across China, this study derived a rational analytical equation to link changes in actual evapotranspiration (ΔET) with those in F within the Budyko framework, and further quantified the effects of ΔF on ET variation during 1976–2015. The elasticity of ET to ΔF was found to be the greatest in the dry catchments in northwest China, followed by the humid catchments in south China, and was the smallest in the subhumid and semiarid catchments in north China. F averaged across all the catchments has increased, and has further led to the increase in ET. The F-ET relationship has become more prominent in the recent decade (2006–2015), with 68.0% of the catchments showing an average increase in F of 4.5% and a resultant average increase in ET of 8.2% compared with the baseline period (1976–1985). These results are helpful for quantitative assessment of hydrological responses to afforestation, especially in water-limited regions.     

Simulation of maize (Zea mays L.) water use with the HYDRUS-1D model in the semi-arid Hailiutu River catchment,Northwest China

Groundwater provides an important source of water for maize cultivation where the water table is shallow in the semi-arid Hailiutu River catchment of the Maowusu Desert on the Erdos Plateau in Northwest China. A HYDRUS-1D model of the unsaturated flow beneath a maize (Zea mays L.) field was calibrated and validated with measured soil water contents at various depths during the maize growing period from 30 April to 1 October 2011, and from 23 May to 27 September 2012, respectively. The model computed the actual maize evapotranspiration (ET_a) as 580 mm during the whole growing period from 30 April to 1 October 2011. The groundwater contribution to ET_a was calculated to be 220 mm, accounting for 38% of maize water use during the growing season in 2011. When the groundwater level drops below a depth of 157 cm, maize can no longer use groundwater for transpiration. The irrigation water requirement increases with the increase of groundwater table depth. These results are very important for managing crop irrigation in the area.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis

ASSOCIATE EDITOR L. Ruiz     

Trends in land surface evapotranspiration across China with remotely sensed NDVI and climatological data for 1981–2010

Abstract

Using satellite observations of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from NOAA-AVHRR and Terra-MODIS, together with climatic data in a physical evapotranspiration (ET) model, the spatio-temporal variability of ET is investigated in terrestrial China from 1981 to 2010. The model predictions of actual ET (ET_a) are validated with ET values from in situ eddy covariance flux measurements and from basin water balance calculations. The national averaged crop reference ET (ET_p) and ET_a values are 916 ± 21 and 415 ± 12 mm year^-1, respectively. The annual ET_a pattern is closely associated with vegetation conditions in the eastern part of China, whereas ET_a is low in the sparsely-vegetated areas and deserts in the northwestern region, corresponding to scarce rainfall events and amounts. The trends of ET_p and ET_a are remarkably different over the country, and the complementary relationship between ET_p and ET_a is revealed for the study period. Averaged over the whole country, ET_a showed an increasing trend from the 1980s to the mid-1990s, followed by a decreasing trend, consistent with the precipitation anomaly. Across the main vegetation types, annual ET_a amounts are found to correspond clearly with the bands of precipitation and ET_p.     

Comparison of the Penman‐Monteith method and regional calibration of the Hargreaves equation for actual evapotranspiration using SWAT-simulated results in the Seolma-cheon basin,South Korea

ABSTRACT

The Hargreaves method provides reference evapotranspiration (ET_o) estimates when only air temperature data are available, although it requires previous local calibration for an acceptable performance. This method was evaluated using the data from 71 meteorological stations in the Seolma-cheon basin (8.48 km²), South Korea, comparing daily estimates against those from the Penman‐Monteith (PM) method, which was used as the standard. To estimate reference ET_o more exactly, considering the climatological characteristics in South Korea, parameter regionalization of the Hargreaves equation is carried out. First, the modified Hargreaves equation is presented after an analysis of the relationship between solar radiation and temperature. Second, parameter (K_ET) optimization of the regional calibration of the Hargreaves equation (RCH) is performed using the PM method and the modified equation at 71 meteorological stations. Next, an application was carried out to evaluate the evapotranspiration methods (PM, original Hargreaves and RCH) in the SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) model by comparing these with the measured actual evapotranspiration (AET) in the basin. The SWAT model was calibrated using 3 years (2007–2009) of daily streamflow at the watershed outlet and 3 years (2007–2009) of daily AET measured at a mixed forest. The model was validated with 3 years (2010‐2012) of streamflow and AET. RCH will contribute to a better understanding of evapotranspiration of an ungauged watershed in areas where meteorological information is scarce.

EDITOR D. Koutsoyiannis ASSOCIATE EDITOR Not assigned     

Dynamics of suspended sediment transport at field‐scale drain channels of irrigation‐dominated watersheds in the Sonoran Desert,southeastern California

Suspended sediment is a major source of pollution in irrigation‐dominated watersheds. However, little is known about the process and mechanisms of suspended sediment transport in drain channels directly connected to agricultural fields. This paper explains sediment dynamics using averaged 5 min flow discharge Q (m³ s^?1) and suspended sediment concentration C (mg l^?1) collected during one crop season in a small catchment containing a first‐order drain channel and its connected six agricultural fields within the Salton Sea watershed. The statistical properties and average trends of Q and C were investigated for both early (i.e. November) and late (i.e. January) stages of a crop season. Further in‐depth analysis on sediment dynamics was performed by selecting two typical single‐field irrigation events and two multiple‐field irrigation events. For each set of irrigation events, the process of suspended sediment transport was revealed by examining hydrograph and sediment graph responses. The mechanisms underlying suspended sediment transport were investigated by analysing the types of corresponding hysteresis loop. Finally, sediment rating curves for both hourly and daily data at early and late stages and for the entire crop season were established to seek possible sediment‐transport predictive model(s). The study suggests that the complicated processes of suspended sediment transport in irrigation‐dominated watersheds require stochastic rather than deterministic forecasting. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Polynomial chaos expansion and response surface method for nonlinear modelling of reference evapotranspiration

The feasibility of polynomial chaos expansion (PCE) and response surface method (RSM) models is investigated for modelling reference evapotranspiration (ET₀). The modelling results of the proposed models are validated against the M5 model tree and multi-layer perceptron neural network (MLPNN) methods. Two meteorological stations, Isparta and Antalya, in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, are inspected. Various input combinations of daily air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed and relative humidity are constructed as input attributes for the ET₀. Generally, the modelling accuracy is increased by increasing the number of inputs. Including wind speed in the model inputs considerably increases their accuracy in modelling ET₀. Mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), agreement index (d) and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) are used as comparison criteria. The PCE is the most accurate model in estimating daily ET₀, giving the lowest MAE (0.036 and 0.037 mm) and RMSE (0.047 and 0.050 mm) and the highest d (0.9998 and 0.9999) and NSE (0.9992 and 0.9996) with the four-input PCE models for Isparta and Antalya, respectively.