Review Paper: A semi‐empirical model of strain sensitivity for 4D seismic interpretation

We reformulate the original model of Hatchell and Bourne and Røste, Stovas and Landrø that couples fractional velocity change to subsurface strain via a fundamental constant R. The new model combines elastic compressibility of a dual‐porosity system for a sand–shale mixture with horizontal planes of inter‐granular weakness. The majority of observed R‐factor magnitudes from post‐stack 4D seismic data in both the reservoir and overburden can thus be explained. R is predicted to depend strongly on lithology and also initial strain state. The model is also extended to predict the observed angle‐dependence of time‐lapse time‐shifts from pre‐stack data. An expression for the gradient of time‐shift with incidence angle is obtained in terms of the background V_P/V_S, and also the ratio of tangential to normal compliances B_T/B_N representing loss or creation of inter‐granular coupling. If accurately estimated from data, this compliance ratio can be used as an additional parameter to assess the post‐production state of the overburden. It is concluded that whilst R remains the over‐arching parameter controlling the magnitude of time‐shifts measured from 4D seismic data, B_T/B_N is a subtler parameter that may also prove of future value.     

Monitoring CO2 saturation using time‐lapse amplitude versus offset analysis of 3D seismic data from the Ketzin CO2 storage pilot site,Germany

The injection of CO₂ at the Ketzin pilot site commenced in June 2008 and was terminated in August 2013 after 67 kT had been injected into a saline formation at a depth of 630–650 m. As part of the site monitoring program, four 3D surface seismic surveys have been acquired to date, one baseline and three repeats, of which two were conducted during the injection period, and one during the post‐injection phase. The surveys have provided the most comprehensive images of the spreading CO₂ plume within the reservoir layer. Both petrophysical experiments on core samples from the Ketzin reservoir and spectral decomposition of the 3D time‐lapse seismic data show that the reservoir pore pressure change due to CO₂ injection has a rather minor impact on the seismic amplitudes. Therefore, the observed amplitude anomaly is interpreted to be mainly due to CO₂ saturation. In this study, amplitude versus offset analysis has been applied to investigate the amplitude versus offset response from the top of the sandstone reservoir during the injection and post‐injection phases, and utilize it to obtain a more quantitative assessment of the CO₂ gaseous saturation changes. Based on the amplitude versus offset modelling, a prominent decrease in the intercept values imaged at the top of the reservoir around the injection well is indeed associated solely with the CO₂ saturation increase. Any change in the gradient values, which would, in case it was positive, be the only signature induced by the reservoir pressure variations, has not been observed. The amplitude versus offset intercept change is, therefore, entirely ascribed to CO₂ saturation and used for its quantitative assessment. The estimated CO₂ saturation values around the injection area in the range of 40%–60% are similar to those obtained earlier from pulsed neutron‐gamma logging. The highest values of 80% are found in the second seismic repeat in close vicinity to the injection and observation wells.     

井间地震资料精细解释方法研究与应用

井间地震资料分辨率很高,但是缺乏成熟的解释方法,本文针对井间地震资料的特点,借鉴地面地震解释技术对井间地震资料开展了精细解释方法研究.首先在深度域资料特点分析的基础上,利用区域速度和层析成像速度将深度域井间地震资料转换到时间域进行研究,并通过粗化降频建立起井间地震资料与地面地震资料之间的相似性联系,得到对井间地震低频反射特征的认识,结合井旁道合成地震记录标定建立起井间地震资料的反射特征,准确的解释了井间地震的反射层位.采用地震瞬时属性分析和时频属性分析得到了对沉积环境的认识,进一步通过波阻抗反演更好的认识井间储层特征.在实际应用中综合多种方法进行解释,并结合测井资料对比落实了井间砂体展布特征,得到对井间储层的精细描述结果,解决了两口井之间储层分布范围、横向连通性及厚度变化等问题,取得了较好的应用效果.     

Sensitivity of seismic structural response to interpretation of soils data

This paper investigates the sensitivity of the predicted seismic response of buildings in a PWR nuclear power station to the potential changes in the techniques and methods of interpreting soil data that have occurred over the last decade. The investigation is based on the soil-structure interaction (SSI) response of a typical PWR reactor building on a soft site during a seismic event. The current techniques and methods of interpretation of soils data tend to lead to a stiffer site with lower soil material damping than the earlier techniques. This leads to an increase in the SSI natural frequencies of typical buildings and an increase in its seismic response. This increase in the seismic response could put into question any seismic design based on seismic loads derived using the previously accepted generic soil data. The paper concludes with a recommendation for further consideration of the proposed departure from the previously accepted soil data.     

Review Paper: Methods of measurement for 4D seismic post-stack time shifts

The estimation of time-lapse time shifts between two, or several, repeated seismic surveys has become increasingly popular over the past eighteen years. These time shifts are a reliable and informative seismic attribute that can relate to reservoir production. Correction for these time shifts or the underlying velocity perturbations and/or subsurface displacement in an imaging sense also permits accurate evaluation of time-lapse amplitudes by attempting to decouple the kinematic component. To date, there are approximately thirty methods for time-shift estimation described in the literature. We can group these methods into three main families of mathematical development, together with several miscellaneous techniques. Here we detail the underlying bases for these methods, and the acknowledged benefits and weaknesses of each class of method highlighted. We illustrate this review with a number of time-lapse seismic examples from producing fields. No method is necessarily superior to the others, as its selection depends on ease of implementation, noise characteristics of the field data, and whether the inherent assumptions suit the case in question. However, cross-correlation stands out as the algorithm of choice based on the Pareto principle and waveform inversion the algorithm delivering best resolution. This is a companion study to the previous review of time-shift magnitudes and a discussion of their rock physics basis.     

煤矿地震数据管理系统的开发

煤矿安全生产要求对三维地震数据进行动态解释，急需基于Windows平台并具有基本解释功能的地震数据管理系统.本文介绍了煤矿地震数据管理系统，它是以Windows 2000/XP作为平台，使用VC++7.0作为开发工具进行研制开发的.     

奇异性分析方法在地震资料解释及反演研究中的应用

本文引入启动函数拓展传统的地层转换模型,在该模型中利用奇异性信息量化地层速度的突变特征,并基于传统的褶积模型研究奇异性信息在波阻抗到合成地震记录之间的传递性.研究结果表明,地震记录中较好地保留了地层介质的奇异性特征,因而从地震记录中提取的奇异性信息除了可以帮助进行地震解释外,还可以作为介质波阻抗反演的有力的支持工具.     

Towards quantitative evaluation of gas injection using time‐lapse seismic data

Of particular concern in the monitoring of gas injection for the purposes of storage, disposal or improved oil recovery is the exact spatial distribution of the gas volumes in the subsurface. In principle this requirement is addressed by the use of 4D seismic data, although it is recognized that the seismic response still largely provides a qualitative estimate of moved subsurface fluids. Exact quantitative evaluation of fluid distributions and associated saturations remains a challenge to be solved. Here, an attempt has been made to produce mapped quantitative estimates of the gas volume injected into a clastic reservoir. Despite good results using three accurately repeated seismic surveys, time‐delay and amplitude attributes reveal fine‐scale differences though large‐scale agreement in the estimated fluid movement. These differences indicate disparities in the nature of the two attributes themselves, which can be explained by several possible causes. Of most impact are the effects of processing and migration, wave interference effects and noise from non‐repeatability of the seismic surveys. This subject highlights the need for a more careful consideration in 4D acquisition, amplitude processing and use of true amplitude preserving attributes in quantitative interpretation.     

Bayesian inversion of time‐lapse seismic data for the estimation of static reservoir properties and dynamic property changes

Seismic conditioning of static reservoir model properties such as porosity and lithology has traditionally been faced as a solution of an inverse problem. Dynamic reservoir model properties have been constrained by time‐lapse seismic data. Here, we propose a methodology to jointly estimate rock properties (such as porosity) and dynamic property changes (such as pressure and saturation changes) from time‐lapse seismic data. The methodology is based on a full Bayesian approach to seismic inversion and can be divided into two steps. First we estimate the conditional probability of elastic properties and their relative changes; then we estimate the posterior probability of rock properties and dynamic property changes. We apply the proposed methodology to a synthetic reservoir study where we have created a synthetic seismic survey for a real dynamic reservoir model including pre‐production and production scenarios. The final result is a set of point‐wise probability distributions that allow us to predict the most probable reservoir models at each time step and to evaluate the associated uncertainty. Finally we also show an application to real field data from the Norwegian Sea, where we estimate changes in gas saturation and pressure from time‐lapse seismic amplitude differences. The inverted results show the hydrocarbon displacement at the times of two repeated seismic surveys.     

地震解释技术现状及发展趋势

本文以我国塔里木油田石油地球物理勘探实例为基础,概述了石油勘探过程中地震解释技术类型、特征、现状和发展趋势.本文认为,在地震勘探技术飞速发展的今天,地球物理学家及地质学家希望获得的地震信息,应当是能够直接反应地下岩石物理特性或油气水的分布,而利用常规的地震解释技术是很难做到这些;随着石油勘探的进一步深化,一些新的地震解释技术涌现出来,并在油气勘探与开发过程中发挥着巨大作用.未来的石油勘探将会面临前所未有的困难,新情况、新问题将层出不穷,地震解释技术也同样面临着考验,因此,只有立足在现有的成熟解释技术之上,并不断探索新的技术与思路,才能与未来的石油勘探步伐相一致.     

Efficient and accurate edge‐preserving smoothing for 3D hexagonally sampled seismic data

The automatic detection of geological features such as faults and channels is a challenging problem in today's seismic exploration industry. Edge detection filters are generally applied to locate features. It is desirable to reduce noise in the data before edge detection. The application of smoothing or low‐pass filters results in noise suppression, but this causes edge blurring as well. Edge‐preserving smoothing is a technique that results in simultaneous edge preservation and noise suppression. Until now, edge‐preserving smoothing has been carried out on rectangular sampled seismic data. In this paper, an attempt has been made to detect edges by applying edge‐preserving smoothing as a pre‐processing step in the hexagonally sampled seismic‐data spatial domain. A hexagonal approach is an efficient method of sampling and has greater symmetry than a rectangular approach. Here, spiral architecture has been employed to handle the hexagonally sampled seismic data. A comparison of edge‐preserving smoothing on both rectangular and hexagonally sampled seismic data is carried out. The data used were provided by Saudi Aramco. It is shown that hexagonal processing results in well‐defined edges with fewer computations.     

三维地震解释技术及其在苏北盆地溱潼凹陷的应用

反射地震剖面是进行精准油气勘探的手段之一,对勘探目标的精确定位,要求不断提高和发展三维地震资料解释技术.本文以苏北盆地溱潼凹陷的地震解释为例,验证了切片、方差体检测、正演模型、三维可视化及平衡剖面等地震解释技术组合的效果.解释成果刻画出溱潼凹陷古近系是由上、下两个构造层序叠合的、复式层序地层格架,由北向南可划分出北部缓斜坡带、中央深洼带、南部断坡带等沉积古地理单元,为有利油气聚集相带的预测奠定了坚实的基础.     

Review Paper: Post-stack 4D seismic time-shifts: Interpretation and evaluation

A review and analysis of post-stack time-lapse time-shifts has been carried out that covers published literature supplemented by in-house datasets available to the authors. Time-shift data are classified into those originating from geomechanical effects and those due to fluid saturation changes. From these data, conclusions are drawn regarding the effectiveness of post-stack time-shifts for overburden and reservoir monitoring purposes. A variety of field examples are shown that display the range and magnitude of variation for each class of application. The underlying physical mechanisms creating these time-shifts are then described, and linked to a series of generic and field-specific rock physics calculations that predict their magnitudes. These calculations serve as a guide for practitioners wishing to utilize this information on their own datasets. Conclusions are drawn regarding the reliability of this attribute for monitoring purposes, and the extent to which further development is required and how it should be reported by authors.     

Application of diffracted wave analysis to time‐lapse seismic data for CO2 leakage detection

Time‐lapse seismic analysis is utilized in CO₂ geosequestration to verify the CO₂ containment within a reservoir. A major risk associated with geosequestration is a possible leakage of CO₂ from the storage formation into overlaying formations. To mitigate this risk, the deployment of carbon capture and storage projects requires fast and reliable detection of relatively small volumes of CO₂ outside the storage formation. To do this, it is necessary to predict typical seepage scenarios and improve subsurface seepage detection methods. In this work we present a technique for CO₂ monitoring based on the detection of diffracted waves in time‐lapse seismic data. In the case of CO₂ seepage, the migrating plume might form small secondary accumulations that would produce diffracted, rather than reflected waves. From time‐lapse data analysis, we are able to separate the diffracted waves from the predominant reflections in order to image the small CO₂ plumes. To explore possibilities to detect relatively small amounts of CO₂, we performed synthetic time‐lapse seismic modelling based on the Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) Otway project data. The detection method is based on defining the CO₂ location by measuring the coherency of the signal along diffraction offset‐traveltime curves. The technique is applied to a time‐lapse stacked section using a stacking velocity to construct offset‐traveltime curves. Given the amount of noise found in the surface seismic data, the predicted minimum detectable amount of CO₂ is 1000–2000 tonnes. This method was also applied to real data obtained from a time‐lapse seismic physical model. The use of diffractions rather than reflections for monitoring small amounts of CO₂ can enhance the capability of subsurface monitoring in CO₂ geosequestration projects.     

长偏移距P波AVO反射系数的一种近似

近年来,长偏移距排列逐渐被大量应用到海上勘探。传统AVO分析都是小入射角,对于长偏移距数据来说有很大不足。为了探讨拓宽AVO分析的研究范围,本文推导了长偏移距时P波反射系数的一种近似公式,并讨论了其精确性。本文的结果和广泛应用的Shuey公式相类似,Shuey公式可以看作本文结果在小入射角情况的简化。     

An approximation to the P-wave reflection coefficient for amplitude variation with long-offset seismic data

近年来,长偏移距排列逐渐被大量应用到海上勘探。传统AVO分析都是小入射角,对于长偏移距数据来说有很大不足。为了探讨拓宽AVO分析的研究范围,本文推导了长偏移距时P波反射系数的一种近似公式,并讨论了其精确性。本文的结果和广泛应用的Shuey公式相类似,Shuey公式可以看作本文结果在小入射角情况的简化。     

The first post‐injection seismic monitor survey at the Ketzin pilot CO2 storage site: results from time‐lapse analysis

The injection of CO₂ at the Ketzin pilot CO₂ storage site started in June 2008 and ended in August 2013. During the 62 months of injection, a total amount of about 67 kt of CO₂ was injected into a saline aquifer. A third repeat three‐dimensional seismic survey, serving as the first post‐injection survey, was acquired in 2015, aiming to investigate the recent movement of the injected CO₂. Consistent with the previous two time‐lapse surveys, a predominantly west–northwest migration of the gaseous CO₂ plume in the up‐dip direction within the reservoir is inferred in this first post‐injection survey. No systematic anomalies are detected through the reservoir overburden. The extent of the CO₂ plume west of the injection site is almost identical to that found in the 2012 second repeat survey (after injection of 61 kt); however, there is a significant decrease in its size east of the injection site. Assessment of the CO₂ plume distribution suggests that the decrease in the size of the anomaly may be due to multiple factors, such as limited vertical resolution, CO₂ dissolution, and CO₂ migration into thin layers, in addition to the effects of ambient noise. Four‐dimensional seismic modelling based on dynamic flow simulations indicates that a dynamic balance between the newly injected CO₂ after the second repeat survey and the CO₂ migrating into thin layers and being dissolved was reached by the time of the first post‐injection survey. In view of the significant uncertainties in CO₂ mass estimation, both patchy and non‐patchy saturation models for the Ketzin site were taken into consideration.     

应用三分量地震数据反演煤系地层孔隙含水量

地层孔隙水含量的计算主要受地层孔隙度与孔隙含水饱和度的影响.通过实验室煤层及其顶底板岩芯物理测试与孔隙度测量,可以获得煤系地层岩芯的孔隙度与岩芯纵、横波速度的经验公式;结合三分量地震勘探获得的纵波与横波速度,能够计算出煤系地层的孔隙度;含水饱和度的计算通过实验室岩电参数测试和阿尔奇公式可以计算得到.结合淮南某矿区三维三分量地震勘探和地球物理测井及岩样的岩电试验,实现了三维空间煤系地层孔隙含水体积百分比的精确计算.该预测方法与传统的、钻孔控制的地下水评价方法相比可以提供相对精细的、三维空间的、定量化的煤系地层孔隙相对含水量,对煤炭与煤层气资源开采中所涉及的地下水分布规律预测有一定的参考意义.     

南北地震带中段地震构造遥感解译

南北地震带中段断裂在遥感影像上具有明显的线性构造特征, 本中研究区域为东昆仑断裂带与龙门山断裂带的交接区, 该区断裂从遥感影像上分析主要有NW向、 NE向、 SN向三组, 包围着岷山隆起近似成三角形。 交接区内构造复杂, 曾发生1879年武都8级地震、 1933年叠溪7.5级地震、 1976年松潘7.2级地震等强震。 通过遥感资料对该区断裂进行构造解译, 确定该区构造活动型式及地震构造特征。