Identification of deformation and failure characteristics in cataclinal slopes using physical modeling

This study investigates the deformation characteristics of cataclinal slopes in central Taiwan prior to landslide failure. Field surveys and physical model tests were performed to explain the gravitational deformation characteristics of cataclinal slopes under various conditions and to derive the deformation process and failure characteristics. The results show that the distribution of erosion gullies (different length of the slope mass), the extent of erosion (different thickness of the slope mass), the foliation dip angle, and the geological material critically affect the deformation of cataclinal slope masses in the study area. The results of physical model tests indicate that increasing the foliation dip angle, the thickness and the length of sliding mass, particle size (spacing between foliations) increases the depth of slope deformation. Foliation dip angle is the most critical factor that controls the deformation of slate slopes. When the cataclinal slopes reached maximum deformation, a shear failure and translational slide occurred within a short period. The deformation zone exhibited significant cracking at the scarp and the bulging of the slope toe, which facilitated the infiltration of surface water and groundwater, accelerating the deformation to failure.     

Deep-seated toppling deformations of rock slopes in western China

Toppling is the foremost failure pattern of anaclinal rock slopes, and deep-seated toppling deformations (DSTDs) are common on high anaclinal slopes on the sides of gorges in western China. The DSTDs can develop to depths of more than 200 m, and may show distinct signs of zonal failure. Many DSTDs undergo transformation to large landslides involving rock volumes of more than 10⁶ m³. However, the conditions for the formation and the basic evolving processes of DSTDs remain unclear. This study seeks to develop an inventory to classify the distribution, and the conditioning factors which govern the formation and deformation modes of DSTDs in western China and to analyze the effect of the geological and geomorphological variables on the toppling intensities. To this end, forty-nine DSTDs were analyzed. The results indicate that DSTDs in western China are commonly distributed along large deeply incised rivers in the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. The steep-dip anaclinal metamorphic soft or soft-hard-interbedded strata with near parallel strikes in the river channel, V-shaped deeply incised river channels, and convex slopes are favorable conditions for the formation of DSTDs in these settings. The dip angle, the gradient, and the height of most slopes which develop DSTDs are 60–90°, 30–50°, and 200–800 m, respectively. There is a highly positive relationship between the depth of toppling and the height of the slope. The toppled rock masses can be classed as extremely intense, intense, moderate, and weak toppling zones characterized by complete block detachment, tensile-shear fracture, tensile fracture, and reverse slip along foliations, respectively. Each zone corresponds to a specific range of the dip angle of the toppled strata, the aperture of the tensile cracks, the P-wave velocity, the state of rock weathering, and the degree of unloading. The extremely intense and the intense toppling zones tend to evolve into sliding failures. Overall, 94% of the DSTDs were derived from flexural toppling and 33% have developed into large landslides.

     

雅砻江上游互层斜坡倾倒变形破坏机制与演化

以甲西倾倒体为典型实例,从赋存环境、发育特征、形成条件等基础层面上分析雅砻江上游互层斜坡倾倒变形破坏机制及演化过程。研究表明:区内大型倾倒体是斜坡岩体在叠加有残余构造应力的自重应力场中长期演化的产物,软硬相间的岩性组合、陡倾内的岸坡结构,加之垂直层面密集节理的切割是斜坡发生倾倒变形的控制性因素;斜坡倾倒是受节理面和层面控制的复合倾倒模式,即:硬岩发生块状-弯曲倾倒,而软岩发生弯曲倾倒;受河谷演化控制,斜坡变形破坏主要经历了4个演化阶段:卸荷回弹陡倾面拉裂阶段,初始变形阶段,板梁根部折断、剪切面贯通阶段以及破坏阶段,并最终转化为蠕滑-拉裂模式形成滑坡。该滑动面受倾向坡外破裂面控制,而并非沿最大弯折带发育。     

坡后土体推力作用下反倾节理岩质边坡次生倾倒机理分析

次生倾倒破坏是层状反倾岩质边坡的一种主要破坏模式,极限平衡理论是分析倾倒破坏的常用方法,研究反倾节理岩质边坡次生倾倒破坏机理对边坡工程众多的西南山区基础设施建设具有重要的工程指导意义。在Goodman和Bray块体倾倒破坏极限平衡分析方法的基础上,建立了考虑地下水压力、节理连通率、岩体黏聚力等影响因素的反倾岩质边坡在坡后土体推力作用下的次生倾倒地质力学模型,提出了坡后土体推力作用下的反倾节理岩质边坡次生倾倒破坏的解析分析方法,推导出了边坡各岩层下推力的解析表达式,提出了边坡倾倒破坏的综合安全系数,并编写了对应的matlab计算程序,为该类边坡的设计和加固提供了理论依据。通过算例分析表明,与单纯岩质边坡块体倾倒破坏相比,该类边坡次生倾倒破坏形式的特点是破坏基准面以上岩层自上而下依次分为滑移区、倾倒区和稳定区3个部分;地下水压力、节理连通率、底裂面岩体黏聚力对各岩层的破坏形式、稳定安全系数大小都具有明显影响,尤其是在坡体中下部及坡脚部分最为敏感;而各岩层稳定安全系数最小的区域集中于边坡中上部。     

A study of the mechanism of flexural toppling failure of rock slopes

Summary The mechanism of flexural toppling failure of jointed rock slopes has been investigated through a series of centrifuge experiments conducted on models manufactured from two types of materials (brittle: a sand-gypsum mixture; and ductile: fibre-cement sheeting). The basal failure plane observed in the centrifuge models, has been found to emanate from the toe of the slope, and orient at an angle of 12 to 20° upward from the normal to the discontinuities. A theoretical model based on a limiting equilibrium approach (Aydan and Kawamoto, 1992) has been adopted to analyse the centrifuge test data. After calibration, the model was found to accurately predict the failure load for all the tests reported in this study. Using this model, a set of charts has been prepared to assist with the analysis of slopes susceptible to flexural toppling.     

地震作用下岩质边坡倾倒破坏分析

倾倒破坏是陡倾层状岩体边坡一类主要的变形破坏形式,地震作用下岩质边坡块体倾倒破坏分析具有重要的工程指导意义。基于块体极限平衡,针对岩块长细比较大的情况,推导出了地震作用下岩质边坡倾倒破坏的一般解析解。对于简单的反倾边坡,给出了地震作用下倾倒破坏的显式解析解,并推导了岩块间法向力、破坏模式转变点和坡脚剩余下滑力计算公式。通过4个典型算例研究了地震作用对反倾边坡破坏模式、倾倒破坏时所允许的最大陡倾节理视倾角、破坏模式转变点和坡脚剩余下滑力的影响,为反倾边坡的抗震支护设计提供了理论基础。最后,根据地震影响系数与破坏模式转变点和坡脚剩余下滑力的定量关系对比分析了解析法与传递系数法,结果显示,当岩块长细比大于20时,解析法具有足够的计算精度。     

基于断距-层厚特征统计的反倾边坡S型破坏演化数值模拟

三峡库区巫峡龚家坊至独龙一带存在大量反倾不稳定边坡,多具有薄厚互层和软硬相间的岩体结构,边坡高度普遍在500 m以上。现场调查表明独龙7#边坡(D7)具有明显的“S”型柔性变形现象。为探明反倾边坡“S”型变形破坏机制,以独龙段反倾边坡为依托,从边坡的岩体结构调查、破坏模式概化、监测资料分析、变形破坏模拟等角度对软硬互层反倾高边坡的破坏机制进行研究。通过现场调查与无人机倾斜摄影,建立了边坡的三维模型,进而提取航拍数据,获得了岩层厚度、断距等的统计规律;基于断距-层厚统计规律,通过离散元软件UDEC对库水软化作用下D7边坡“S”型变形机理进行了模拟分析。研究表明:(1)独龙段边坡普遍具有陡倾内逆向层状结构,发育3组结构面,岩体被切割成块;(2)根据软岩占比,可将独龙段边坡分为2类:A类边坡软岩层占约20%,断距/层厚值分布于0.7~2.8区间,并集中于1.2~1.8;B类边坡软岩层占比约10%,断距/层厚值分布于0.5~3.3区间,并集中于0.6~1.5;A类边坡岩体长细比更大;(3)长期监测表明,边坡在库水位低值时位移量大,D7边坡位移持续增大,潜在整体失稳;(4)离散元模拟表明,边坡破裂面自坡脚延伸,中部硬岩区起到支撑并抑制上部变形的作用,边坡硬岩区与软岩区的差异变形以及变形体不同部位惯性的差异是导致岩层“S”型变形的主因,最终分别过“S”形岩层两个反弯点形成两条剪切带,形成自下而上的柔性弯曲-滑移型破坏。(5)断距-层厚比(S/T)可影响边坡破坏模式,比值越大,反折变形区与坡脚垮塌区越小,当S/T≥2时,S型变形不再发育。     

反倾软硬互层岩质边坡倾倒变形破坏机理与影响因素研究

倾倒变形常见于反倾结构边坡,特别在具有软硬互层结构边坡中,甚至可发育为深度上百米的大型滑坡。为进一步探明此类反倾边坡倾倒变形的破坏机制,以及边坡形态结构及岩体力学参数等因素的影响规律,以离心模型试验为原型,结合离散元数值模拟,分析了倾倒变形的形成过程以及在外界扰动下的破坏机制。并通过单因素分析法、正交设计法等,研究了多种因素对反倾边坡倾例变形的影响,通过极差分析获得了各因素的敏感性。通过在岩层内预置大量多边形随机裂隙,数值模拟较好地实现了对破裂面起裂及延展规律的模拟。结果表明:离心模型试验可较好地还原倾倒变形过程,而离散元数值模拟则可对实验结果进行有效的重现与扩展,两者吻合度良好;岩体变形过程存在3个阶段,即起始变形、稳态变形和失稳破坏等阶段;破裂面呈弧形,在变形积累到一定程度后快速形成;边坡可自下而上形成多级破裂面,并伴随岩层的强烈弯曲变形,在外界扰动下,倾倒变形体将由外到内沿不同破裂面形成渐进后退式破坏;多种影响因素中,边坡形态结构影响最大,层面参数次之,软硬岩岩石力学参数的差异影响较小;具体而言,边坡形态与坡体结构对倾倒变形的影响性大小表现为坡角＞倾角＞坡高＞坡形＞层厚比＞层厚,坡角、倾角、坡高越大,坡形越外凸,软硬岩层厚差越小,倾倒变形越容易发生;边坡变形规模主要受形态结构因素控制,倾角和坡角影响最显著。     

苗尾水电站赵子坪岸坡变形失稳的地下水动力作用分析

库水位变动是诱发库岸边坡变形失稳的主要因素。为探究库水位变动下倾倒变形岩体破坏后形成的堆积体斜坡的地下水动力作用,以云南澜沧江的苗尾水电站赵子坪滑坡为研究对象,通过现场地质调查和勘探确定了滑坡形态和坡体结构特征;再结合监测数据深入分析了滑坡在地下水动力作用下的变形失稳机制,并基于非饱和土力学理论和有限元法对其失稳机制进行进一步验证。结果显示:赵子坪岸坡为原始倾倒岩体变形破坏后上部强倾倒岩体沿着折断面发生滑动而形成的堆积体斜坡,内部呈层状堆积的片石表明其还保留了部分倾倒岩体的结构特征。水库蓄水后,由于松散的倾倒堆积体为库水渗入坡体创造了良好的条件,地下水位随库水位升高而快速升高,导致孔隙水压力增大而滑坡阻滑段有效应力减小,从而造成稳定性降低,滑坡易沿着由倾倒折断面演化而成的基覆界面发生滑动破坏。     

不同降雨模式下膨胀岩边坡模型试验研究

采用原状膨胀岩进行室内边坡模型试验,研究膨胀岩边坡在连续降雨和湿-干循环模式下的变形和水分入渗特性,揭示两种模式下膨胀岩边坡的变形破坏模式。试验发现,连续降雨模式下初期数次降雨对膨胀岩边坡变形影响最大,有明显的水平方向位移,后期变形很小且趋向稳定。湿-干循环模式下边坡膨胀变形及深部岩体含水率降雨完成后一段时间才达到峰值,随循环次数及降雨量增大,边坡变形速率及变形量都明显增大,岩体裂隙不断发育,水分入渗深度增大,但限于表面一定深度,对深部岩体影响较小。试验结果对工程应用有一定的指导意义：连续降雨模式初期膨胀较大,须加强和完善初期的排水措施,做好边坡的支挡防护措施;湿-干循环模式下,随循环次数增加,做好坡面的防护措施,以起到保湿防渗作用;两种降雨模式均说明纯膨胀性泥岩边坡不发生典型的圆弧滑动等破坏模式,而工程边坡的滑动多发生在软弱夹层上,因此,要做好该类边坡的软弱夹层特性勘察,对于不含软弱夹层的纯泥岩边坡要重点监测其浅层变形特性。     

反倾层状岩质边坡倾倒变形机理与影响因素的离散元模拟

为进一步研究层状反倾边坡的弯曲倾倒变形机制,以离心试验为原型,通过离散元数值模拟,研究了层状岩质反倾边坡的变形机理与影响因素。通过预置层内随机裂隙,实现了破裂面的形成和贯通。研究结果表明：模拟结果与试验吻合较好,边坡变形可分为起始蠕变、稳态变形和失稳破坏3个阶段;边坡破裂面在达到破坏荷载（G_f）后瞬间贯通,呈直线型,产状受岩层倾角控制,G_f值与坡角幂函数相关;反倾边坡的破坏需满足倾角和坡角启动条件,且变形破坏与岩层所受弯矩关系密切,当倾角为70°~80°、坡角大于60°时,最易破坏;典型破坏模式有倾倒-折断-块体式、倾倒-弯曲-折断式、倾倒-反折式3种,其受倾角、坡角组合控制;对材料参数的正交试验表明,各参数对G_f的敏感性从大到小依次为密度、层面内摩擦角、层厚、密度比、层面黏聚力,且G_f与层厚、层面内摩擦角及密度比具有良好的线性相关性;层面内摩擦角可影响破裂面产状,从而控制变形体规模,其他参数仅影响G_f的大小。     

Influence of discontinuities and clay minerals in their filling materials on the instability of rock slopes

To assess the influence of discontinuities and clay minerals in their filling materials on the instability of rock slopes, seven rock slopes along the margin of Ganjnameh–Shahrestaneh Road, Hamedan Province, Western Iran were selected, and the physical and mechanical properties of their rocks and discontinuities were determined. By statistical studies of the discontinuities, rock slope stability analysis has been performed using kinematic and limit equilibrium methods so that safety factors for the rock slopes can be calculated. Also, sampling of filling materials and X-ray diffraction tests have been done to identify the clay minerals in the filling materials. The lithologies of the studied rock slopes are granite, diorite and hornfels. The presence of discontinuities and weakness planes with different orientations and clay minerals in filling materials of discontinuities are effective factors that cause plane, wedge and toppling failures in the rock slopes. Clay minerals as filling materials of discontinuities in the studied rock slope facilitate their instability by two different methods. First, absorption of water by infilling clay minerals causes the friction angle of discontinuity surfaces that leads to plane and wedge failures to be reduced. Second, water absorption causes the swelling of clay infilling minerals that leads to toppling failure.     

斜坡倾倒变形的工程地质分析

近10年来,在山区,尤其是西部山区的工程建设和灾害防治实践中,我们发现越来越多的以“倾倒”为特征的岩质边坡变形破坏和稳定性问题,其出现的频度和造成的危害大有比肩“滑动”破坏这一边坡失稳的传统主题,成为困扰地质工程师和岩石力学工作者的又一难题。这类问题之所以难,是因为建立在以“滑动”为基础的传统边坡稳定性分析方法不再适用这类边坡。本文在大量工程实例的基础上,分析了边坡倾倒变形和破坏的基本特征,从“倾倒”变形破坏的地质过程和变形稳定性分析的基本理念出发,建立了描述倾倒边坡不同变形程度的工程地质模型,这个模型将倾倒边坡分为倾倒-坠覆、倾倒-错动、倾倒-张裂、倾倒-松弛4个区,分别对应不同的变形程度和稳定性状况,提出了各个区的具体特征和定性指标与量化指标相结合的描述指标体系,从而将倾倒的地质显现、力学机理和变形稳定性有机统一,实现了对倾倒边坡稳定性的工程地质评价。与传统的“滑动”问题不同的是,本文没有强调对这类问题采用强度稳定性的评价思路,而建议采用变形稳定性评价的理念,这似乎更适合倾倒变形这类问题的分析和评价。     

重庆市涪陵区厚层软硬相间岩体失稳模式

重庆市涪陵区厚层软硬相间公路高边坡的详细调查发现,不同的岩层产状,不同开挖方向其斜坡变形破坏模式不同。本文根据野外实例总结了不同岩层产状与开挖方向对应的破坏模式,平缓层状斜坡破坏方式有滑塌式崩塌、倾倒式崩塌和坠落式崩塌;中倾角层状斜坡破坏方式有顺层滑移和崩塌;高陡倾角层状斜坡坡破坏方式有滑移式崩塌和坠落式崩塌。表明斜坡变形破坏地质力学模式与斜坡岩体结构之间存在着密切的成生联系。通过对不同倾角的斜坡岩体破坏方式研究,可以达到系统评价预测斜坡稳定性的目的;通过公路开挖对不同产状岩层可能造成灾害的预期,可以采用不同的预防措施,避免大型灾害的发生。     

缓倾软硬岩互层边坡变形破坏机制模型试验研究

以宜巴高速公路沿途彭家湾软硬岩互层边坡为工程依托,依据地质分析及相似理论建立缓倾软硬岩互层边坡室内模型,采用开挖试验及和注水软化试验来模拟实际中的工程开挖（或河谷下切）和雨水浸润软化过程,研究缓倾软硬岩互层边坡的变形破坏机制。结果表明：在开挖及雨水软化两种工况下,该类软硬岩互层边坡的变形模式都是前期的滑移拉裂变形和后期的整体蠕滑变形,破坏模式是以深部软层为滑动面的整体滑移;硬岩层与软岩层的变形情况略有不同,硬岩层以整体蠕滑变形为主,而软岩层以滑移拉裂变形为主;深部软岩层的状态变化对边坡的整体稳定性影响非常关键;工程开挖（河谷下切）及雨水入渗都会对该类缓倾软硬岩互层边坡的稳定性有重要影响,开挖导致的临空面及微裂隙是滑坡发生的基础,水是滑坡发生的条件和诱因。     

上硬下软反倾边坡开挖变形响应的物理模拟

现有上硬下软边坡的研究大都集中在压缩挤出变形的近水平泥岩、页岩基座型边坡变形演化过程,针对倾倒变形的板岩基座型边坡开挖响应研究甚少,本文以西藏玉曲河某水电站厂址边坡为研究对象,根据现场地质调查建立符合坡体实际情况的地质结构模型,采用物理试验的方法模拟原型边坡开挖。通过试验揭示上硬下软反倾边坡在开挖条件下的变形响应特征及破坏模式。研究结果表明:（1）开挖条件下上硬下软型边坡变形破坏过程分为a）下部软岩倾倒弯曲加剧;b）软岩倾倒折断,上部卸荷硬岩沿已有裂隙剪切;c）倾倒软岩滑移,卸荷硬岩剪断岩性分界部位,折断面贯通3个阶段。其变形破坏模式为下部软岩倾倒—上部硬岩剪断组合滑移型破坏;（2）开挖强倾倒区岩体会使下部软岩迅速失稳并促使上部硬岩剪切破坏;开挖引起的反倾上硬下软边坡大变形在短时间内完成,前期变形和能量积累是一个较长的过程;（3）开挖时需避免对坡脚倾倒岩体“大开挖”施工。     

基于底摩擦试验的硬岩岩质边坡变形过程及破坏机制研究

针对不同倾向、不同倾角条件下,边坡变形破坏特征不同但缺乏相互对比分析研究的现状,在充分考虑硬岩岩质边坡变形破坏特征的基础上,配制硬岩相似材料,采用底摩擦试验方法,分析不同倾向、不同倾角边坡变形破坏模式,并借助PIVlab技术进行分析。结果表明:顺倾和反倾边坡变形破坏模式和破坏范围有明显区别。在45°坡度条件下,当顺倾边坡倾角由30°→45°→60°→80°转换时,变形破坏模式由滑移-拉裂→轻微滑移-弯曲（或滑移-剪切）→未有明显变形（整体稳定）→浅表部倾倒-拉裂逐渐演化。在45°坡度、反倾边坡条件下,变形破坏模式由岩层倾角30°和45°条件下无明显变形,逐渐向60°和80°条件下的倾倒-拉裂演化。当岩层倾角较陡时,反倾边坡破坏范围相对顺倾边坡更大,倾倒弯曲转折端更深。PIVlab结果反映出不同结构边坡条件下,不同位置的速度和位移矢量特征不同,且与宏观观察结果相吻合。研究成果能够为同类边坡的稳定性评价和治理设计提供一定参考。     

Modelling of Progressive and Instantaneous Failures of Foliated Rock Slopes

Summary Mechanisms of flexural toppling failure of slopes in foliated rock masses are investigated both experimentally by testing small scaled models in a centrifuge and theoretically by using a limiting equilibrium model and a finite element model based on the Cosserat theory. Both theoretical models include bending moments of rock layers in their formulation. Two main failure mechanisms are observed: (1) instantaneous failure involving a large volume of failed material and (2) progressive failure where the fracture initially localises near the toe region and then progresses further into the rock mass with increasing load. These two mechanisms of slope failure are observed to be controlled by the magnitude of the joint friction angle. The joint friction angles of about 20° and above are most likely to cause instantaneous failure while the lesser friction angles result in a progressive failure. Joint cohesion is not found to have a similar effect on the failure mechanisms, provided that it is low enough to allow sliding between the rock layers – a prerequisite for flexural toppling.     

物质组成特征对碎石土斜坡变形破坏影响研究

为研究物质组成空间分布特征对降雨下碎石土斜坡变形破坏的影响,以不同成因碎石土斜坡的特点为依照,进行了4种物质组成空间分布的碎石土斜坡模型及1种均质斜坡模型试验。结果表明,物质组成空间分布特征对降雨下碎石土斜坡变形破坏所发挥的作用与降雨入渗方向和应力调整方向有重要关系。当土料变化方向与入渗方向大角度相交且与应力调整方向相同时,斜坡渗透性为土料各自的渗透性,斜坡力学性质偏向于组成土料力学性质的最大值。当土料变化方向与入渗方向相同且与应力调整方向大角度相交时,斜坡渗透性接近组成土料渗透性的最小值,斜坡变形破坏受控于其中的软弱土料。降雨下斜坡各处均发生变形,且变形向周围调整并产生影响。破裂面更易发于软弱土料中。该研究有助于斜坡灾害勘察、预测评价及防治向精细化方向发展。     

降雨条件下黄土边坡现场试验研究

黄土边坡的变形破坏多发生于降雨期间,由此也造成了大量的损失。为减小降雨诱发黄土滑坡的影响,开展降雨型滑坡现场实验研究,具有现实意义。本文选取泾阳一天然黄土边坡为研究对象,利用自行设计的模拟降雨系统,设计并进行了3组不同雨强下的大型黄土边坡人工模拟降雨试验,旨在研究不同雨强条件下天然黄土边坡的入渗规律及变形破坏模式。通过对边坡内埋设的土壤水分传感仪、土压力盒和张力计管的读数变化及试验现象进行分析,进而得出降雨条件下大型黄土边坡现场试验的变形破坏规律,总结出该类边坡的水分入渗规律和变形破坏模式。试验结果表明,边坡入渗呈现一定的规律:降雨条件下,坡肩入渗深度和速率最大,坡脚次之,坡面最小;同时,降雨强度越大,雨水入渗速率越快,入渗时间越长,边坡相同位置处体积含水率和土压力增大幅度越大,基质吸力减小的幅度越大。降雨条件下天然黄土边坡的变形破坏模式为:坡肩侵蚀及侵蚀扩展→坡面裂隙形成扩展→坡肩裂隙形成扩展→局部滑塌;若继续降雨,则坡肩局部裂隙逐渐贯通进而形成滑面,最终导致滑坡发生。