Identification of deformation and failure characteristics in cataclinal slopes using physical modeling

This study investigates the deformation characteristics of cataclinal slopes in central Taiwan prior to landslide failure. Field surveys and physical model tests were performed to explain the gravitational deformation characteristics of cataclinal slopes under various conditions and to derive the deformation process and failure characteristics. The results show that the distribution of erosion gullies (different length of the slope mass), the extent of erosion (different thickness of the slope mass), the foliation dip angle, and the geological material critically affect the deformation of cataclinal slope masses in the study area. The results of physical model tests indicate that increasing the foliation dip angle, the thickness and the length of sliding mass, particle size (spacing between foliations) increases the depth of slope deformation. Foliation dip angle is the most critical factor that controls the deformation of slate slopes. When the cataclinal slopes reached maximum deformation, a shear failure and translational slide occurred within a short period. The deformation zone exhibited significant cracking at the scarp and the bulging of the slope toe, which facilitated the infiltration of surface water and groundwater, accelerating the deformation to failure.     

震裂斜坡形成机理及变形破坏模式研究

震裂斜坡是强震作用下形成的一类分布范围广、震裂变形严重、潜在危害大的次生地质灾害,为了深入系统地分析其震裂机理及变形破坏机制模式,本文结合"5.12"汶川大地震造成的震裂斜坡及其破坏现象的详细调查,在对强震中的地震波效应深入分析的基础上,以双面斜坡为例,首先对震裂变形的力学机理进行了系统分析。认为强震中的体波效应将导致斜坡体处于量值和方向不断变化的拉-剪应力和反压应力的交替作用之下,其形成的拉-剪破裂效应和潜在的楔劈效应是斜坡震裂变形的重要力学因素之一。同时,面波效应将导致坡体表面处于鼓胀拉力和扭力的作用之下,是坡体表部整体震裂破碎甚至破坏的另一重要力学因素。二者共同作用均使坡体应力场处于不断的动态变化过程中,坡体(面)震裂变形甚至破坏更为严重。在此基础上,对强震中斜坡变形破坏的机制模式进行了归纳,认为主要有四种表现形式,即旋转-拉裂型、旋转-剪滑型、鼓胀-拉裂型和滑移-拉裂型。研究成果为震裂斜坡稳定性分析以及灾后重建和防灾减灾提供了有力参考。     

Identifying critical combination of roadside slopes susceptible to rainfall-induced failures

Natural Hazards - The stability of roadside slopes is vital for the smooth operation of the highway transportation system. The failure of slopes adjacent to the highway corridors disrupts the...     

落石堆积的结构特征与斜坡破坏型式之转换

在基岩山区和丘陵区，落石堆积的分布非常广泛、并可经长期积累而形成巨大规模。然而，因缺乏研究，它们(尤其是规模较大者)经常被误定成滑坡或崩塌堆积。为此，作者结合长江三峡工程和西部大开发的需要，采用天然模型勘测和岩相分析等多种方法对其进行了长期研究。结果认为：1．落石堆积(累积体)通常是在扩离-落石发育而崩塌、滑坡不发育的陡崖(坡)下形成，同时还需有较平坡面，便于落石停积而不易被重力和流水搬走的堆积场所；2．落石堆积的结构特征为：(1)前缘土体较密实且粒(块)径较小，后缘多大块石并常具架空结构；(2)不等粒系数普遍较大；(3)常有淤泥质和砂、卵石夹层或透镜体；(4)前缘可具向外陡倾的加积层理。基于此，水的潜蚀作用和地表水对前缘的集中冲刷常成为落石堆积变形破坏的主因；3．落石堆积的破坏型式为滑坡、泥石流或碎屑流；4．落石堆积的勘查应特别注意查明环境水文地质条件、储水结构及相关参数；其稳定性评价应首先分析不同工程活动影响下产生潜蚀的可能性；5．为防治斜坡失稳，首先应保护落石堆积的自稳结构和选用有防潜蚀功能的开放型措施；6．深入研究落石堆积，对沉积学和工程地质学也具有理论意义和实用价值。     

Investigation of rainfall-induced toe-cut slope failure mechanisms in the southeastern coastal area of China

Natural Hazards - Owing to the contradiction between the mountainous terrain and increasing population density in the southeastern coastal region of China, toe-cut slopes are widely distributed in...     

Influence of rainfall-induced wetting on the stability of slopes in weathered soils

Shallow failures of slopes in weathered soil are caused by infiltration due to prolonged rainfall. These failures are mainly triggered by the deepening of the wetting band accompanied by a decrease in matric suction induced by the water infiltration. This paper reports trends of rainfall-induced wetting band depth in two types of weathered soils that are commonly found in Korea. Both theoretical and numerical analyses for wetting band depth are presented based on the soil–water characteristic curve obtained using filter paper as well as tensiometer tests. It is found that the magnitude of wetting front suction plays a key role in the stability of slopes in weathered soils. Theoretical analysis based on modified Green and Ampt model tends to underestimate the wetting band depth for typical Korean weathered soils. It was also deduced that for Korean weathered soils, the factor of safety drops rapidly once the wetting band depth of 1.2 m reached.     

Probabilistic failure analysis of infinite slopes under random rainfall processes and spatially variable soil

Rainfall-induced landslides occur during or immediately after rainfall events in which the pore water pressure builds up, leading to shallow slope failure. Thereby, low permeability layers result in high gradients in pore water pressure. The spatial variability of the soil permeability influences the probability such low permeability layers, and hence the probability of slope failure. In this paper, we investigate the influence of the vertical variability of soil permeability on the slope reliability, accounting for the randomness of rainfall processes. We model the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil with a one-dimensional random field. The random rainfall events are characterised by their duration and intensity and are modelled through self-similar random processes. The transient infiltration process is represented by Richards equation, which is evaluated numerically. The reliability analysis of the infinite slope is based on the factor of safety concept for evaluating slope stability. To cope with the large number of random variables arising from the discretization of the random field and the rainfall process, we evaluate the slope reliability through Subset Simulation, which is an adaptive Monte Carlo method known to be especially efficient for reliability analysis of such high-dimensional problems. Numerical investigations show higher probability of slope failure with increased spatial variability of the saturated hydraulic conductivity and with more uniform rainfall patterns.     

Integrated analysis of a coupled mechanism for the failure processes of pile-reinforced slopes

A series of centrifuge model tests was conducted to investigate the failure mechanism of pile-reinforced slopes under self-weight loading and vertical loading conditions. An integrated analysis method was proposed based on the image-based measurement results of the displacement of the slope in the tests. The failure process of a pile-reinforced slope was quantified based on the measured deformation process over the entire slope, which was shown to depend primarily on the loading conditions. The deformation localisation was discovered in the slope during loading and was effectively described using a newly introduced index, the Diversity Factor of Displacement (DFD). The deformation localisation of the slope developed and caused the progressive formation of the slip surface. At the same time, a local failure at a point on the slip surface resulted in new deformation localisation, and the influence expanded with the centre of the failure point and waned with increasing distance from the failure point. The deformation localisation process and the deformation-failure process of the piles interacted as both cause and effect and developed alternately. The failure mechanism of the pile-reinforced slopes was used to explain the effects of several influencing factors on the bearing capacity of the reinforced slope, such as the pile spacing, pile location, and gradient of the slope.     

Assessment of failure susceptibility of soil slopes using fuzzy logic

Generally, the process of land occupation in urban areas involves spaces that are not suitable for construction. In most cases these areas are subject to landslides. Therefore it is mister the development of models to evaluate the susceptibility of occurrence of landslides in these areas. For this, Fuzzy Logic is used herein for modeling such areas where landslides are susceptible to occur and, therefore, a direct evaluation is important. The possibility of capturing the judgment and the modeling of linguistic variables are the main advantages of using Fuzzy Logic. These models are capable to capture the factors directly affecting the slope stability and also the inter-relationship amongst them. These factors were chosen by experts to whom a questionnaire was sent. Fuzzy Logic was then used to transform the linguistic variables into fuzzy number, allowing thus, the calculation of failure potential index (FPI). Herein the MAX-MIN Mamdani strategy for the inference of the rule base was used. This methodology has been applied to identify the susceptibility of landslides in a chaotic occupied urban area of Itaperuna City in northeastern of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where some occurrences have been reported.     

降雨诱发浅层黄土滑坡变形破坏机制

由降雨引发的浅层黄土滑坡灾害具有致灾性强、范围广、影响面积大等特点,是黄土高原地区危害严重的地质灾害类型。经典算法采用安全系数描述坡体稳定性,难以对坡体变形破坏的起始位置和实际失效面加以识别,限制了滑坡变形过程的描述和滑坡有效预测。以非饱和土吸应力理论为指导,基于Hydrus中的Slope Cube模块,建立黄土斜坡水-力耦合模型,结合黄土地区易滑坡形态统计数据,针对凸型、凹型、直线型3种坡型与30°、40°、50°三种坡度组合,计算了不同降雨条件下的坡体稳定性响应。结果表明,不同坡型的黄土斜坡对降雨条件具有明显的响应。相同降雨量、相同坡度条件下直线型坡发生浅表层破坏的可能性最低,凹型坡次之、凸型坡的稳定性最差。与之相对应的,相同条件下凸型坡失稳时间最短、凹型坡次之、直线型坡最长。本研究可为浅层滑坡的早期识别和预报提供支撑。     

基于动力学和材料软化特性的边坡渐进破坏特征研究

边坡的失稳是一个从量变到质变的动态渐进破坏过程,此问题也是边坡领域研究的重点与难点之一。在考虑岩土材料软化特性和动力学求解的基础上,建立了边坡渐进破坏仿真的理论框架;利用ABAQUS软件的动力显式求解模块实现了边坡的渐进破坏仿真;根据塑性应变揭露了剪切带的扩展过程,由软化本构确定了滑面材料的分区演化规律,根据等效塑性应变确定了边坡的滑面,通过滑面位置将边坡分为滑体、滑带、滑床,并分别研究了边坡各分区内部特征点运动学变量的发展过程,从而揭示了边坡的渐进破坏过程;基于材料参数沿滑面的时空分布,利用矢量和法得到了边坡不同演化阶段的安全系数。对比该方法与Bishop法确定的滑面位置与安全系数,发现两种方法峰值和残余强度对应的安全系数比较接近,该方法搜索所得滑面位于Bishop法自动搜索的滑面之间,验证了此方法的合理性及可靠性。最后分析了材料软化特征对边坡稳定性的影响,在保持其他参数不变的条件下,增大残余黏聚力,边坡的滑面位置加深,安全系数的初始值减小,安全系数的快速减小阶段有所推迟,并且快速减小阶段经历的时间有所延长,稳定后的安全系数有所增大。保持其他参数不变,增大残余黏聚力对应的等效塑性应变阈值,边坡的滑面位置加深,安全系数的初始值减小,安全系数的快速减小阶段有所推迟,但快速减小阶段经历的时间基本不变,达到稳定的时间有所推迟,同时稳定后的安全系数略微有所增大。     

降雨诱发浅层滑坡渐进破坏分析研究

为分析降雨诱发浅层滑坡的演变过程。本文以湖南湘西古丈滑坡为例,基于Green-Ampt入渗模型,进行了降雨诱发浅层滑坡渐进破坏分析。研究结果表明:在强降雨作用下,滑坡的失稳破坏主要是由于前缘土体以及中前部土体的局部破坏,而逐渐发展为整体破坏。并且,受滑坡地形影响,地形平缓的区域虽然湿润锋下渗较快,土体抗剪强度较低,但由于土体饱和带的渗流作用较小,而重力提供垂直于滑面的分力较大,该部分稳定性较为良好,故湿润锋对于滑坡稳定性的影响还应该根据不同地形条件加以分析。渐进式滑坡破坏分析方法对滑坡的监测和防治具有重要的指导意义。     

Study of surface runoff using physical models

. The profiles of overland water flow as a function of space and time obtained by applying kinematic wave approximations combined with the Darcy-Weisbach resistance formula to laminar flow are presented. Rainfall-excess is assumed to remain constant during a certain period of time. Runoff from surfaces of constant slope, with uniform surface texture, and the effects of different parameters on overland flow have been studied. Comparisons of runoff using Darcy-Weisbach, Manning, and Chezy resistance formulas have been made. It was found that the lower the rainfall-excess rates, the longer the surface runoff starting time, peak time, and smaller the peak runoff value at any distance. It was also found that the overland flow increases rapidly to the peak value, followed by a rapid decline which begins at the moment the rainfall-excess ceases, and then approaches zero slowly. Comparison of the theoretical calculations of runoff with the measured data of the Los Angeles field tests on concrete-paved surface shows good agreement.     

Investigation on failure mechanism of nailed soil slopes under surcharge loading: testing and analysis

This paper presents the laboratory test results of nailed soil slopes to study the behaviour of reinforced slopes under surcharge load. Tests were conducted on nailed soil slopes of three different slope angles (β = 30°, 45°and 60°) and nail inclinations (i = 0°, 15° and 30°). Each slope is reinforced with a number of hollow aluminium nails placed in three rows. The failure response, load-settlement, nail forces at the centre of nails and the distribution of nail forces along the length are examined during the tests. The numerical simulation of the model tests is performed by a 3-D finite element program. The numerical results are found in agreement to the corresponding experimental results. It is observed that the nails inclined at 0° to the horizontal give the maximum improvement in the load carrying capacity of the slopes followed closely by the 15° nail inclination. The maximum nail forces are observed in the topmost row of nails and decreases with the depth. The distribution of the nail forces along the nail are also found to be varying with respect to the failure surface of the slopes.     

Assessing rockfall susceptibility in steep and overhanging slopes using three-dimensional analysis of failure mechanisms

Rockfalls strongly influence the evolution of steep rocky landscapes and represent a significant hazard in mountainous areas. Defining the most probable future rockfall source areas is of primary importance for both geomorphological investigations and hazard assessment. Thus, a need exists to understand which areas of a steep cliff are more likely to be affected by a rockfall. An important analytical gap exists between regional rockfall susceptibility studies and block-specific geomechanical calculations. Here we present methods for quantifying rockfall susceptibility at the cliff scale, which is suitable for sub-regional hazard assessment (hundreds to thousands of square meters). Our methods use three-dimensional point clouds acquired by terrestrial laser scanning to quantify the fracture patterns and compute failure mechanisms for planar, wedge, and toppling failures on vertical and overhanging rock walls. As a part of this work, we developed a rockfall susceptibility index for each type of failure mechanism according to the interaction between the discontinuities and the local cliff orientation. The susceptibility for slope parallel exfoliation-type failures, which are generally hard to identify, is partly captured by planar and toppling susceptibility indexes. We tested the methods for detecting the most susceptible rockfall source areas on two famously steep landscapes, Yosemite Valley (California, USA) and the Drus in the Mont-Blanc massif (France). Our rockfall susceptibility models show good correspondence with active rockfall sources. The methods offer new tools for investigating rockfall hazard and improving our understanding of rockfall processes.     

降雨条件下北川斜坡破坏的数值模拟

本文采用FLAC的两相流模式和修正的Mohr—Coulomb模型,对北川地区震后土在降雨条件下的位移和速度矢量进行了数值模拟和分析,同时在室内进行了降雨条件下斜坡破坏的模型实验。分析结果表明：土体在沿坡面的最大水平位移发生在坡脚处,土体水平位移是衡量斜坡破坏的首要指标,可采用坡面特征点的位移突变作为斜坡破坏的判别标准;数值模拟得到的斜坡破坏与降雨历时关系与室内模型实验结果吻合较好。     

Plane failure analysis of rock slopes

Summary Hoek and Bray (1981) gave an analytical approach for plane failure analysis for rock slopes that is limited to those slopes in which the upper slope surface is horizontal and the tension crack is vertical. An analysis is presented here which can take these factors into account. It is found that varying the angle of the upper slope from 0° to 30° causes a significant reduction in the factor of safety. Varying the tension crack from vertical to 70° only has an effect when the upper slope angle is less than 20°.     

Back analyses of rainfall-induced slope failure in Northland Allochthon formation

To verify numerical models used for the development of an early warning system for rainfall induced landslides, a back analysis of a roadway embankment adjacent to State Highway 1 in Silverdale, New Zealand has been undertaken. The embankment collapsed in June 2008 as a result of prolonged rainfall. The failure occurred in a cut slope through the landslide-prone Northland Allochthon formation. Using volumetric water content sensors and a rainfall gauge, recordings were made of the field response of the soil due to rainfall events during the 2010 winter. Saturated/unsaturated seepage analyses were undertaken using empirically obtained soil parameters to simulate the variation in the monitored volumetric water contents in conjunction with a slope stability analysis to determine the factor of safety of the slope. The rainfall record that caused the slope failure was then applied as an influx to this model to determine the factor of safety against slope failure. If modelled correctly, this factor of safety should reach a minimum at the same time the landslide occurred. If a good agreement between the models and the field observations is reached, the models can be used to create a cost-effective early warning system.     

Centrifuge modelling of rainfall-induced slope failure in variably saturated soil

Acta Geotechnica - This paper presents the results of centrifuge tests on rainfall-induced instabilities in variably saturated slopes. The roles of rainfall intensity and initial conditions, such...     

Spatiotemporal modelling of rainfall-induced landslides using machine learning

Landslides - Natural terrain landslides are mainly triggered by rainstorms in Hong Kong, which pose great threats to life and property. To mitigate landslide risk, building a prediction model which...