In situ X-ray micro-CT for investigation of damage evolution in black shale under uniaxial compression

Crack damage evolution of shale is crucial to the hydraulic fracturing treatment and engineering stability. Although many effects have been done on the macroscopic characteristics of shale, yet the microscopic failure mechanism is not well understood. A uniaxial compressive test on black shale was conducted under topographic monitoring using in situ X-ray micro-tomography (µCT). A series of high-resolution reconstruction images were obtained by carrying out CT scans at six key points throughout the test to obtain the internal structure of shale sample. In addition, the CT values for the purpose of crack damage evolution in shale were identified. Clear 2D/3D CT images, CT value analysis and image segmentation analysis reveal that the sample experiences compression, damage, cracking, crack propagation, and collapse stages. Crack geometry and distribution in the shale sample is visualized by rendered CT images, and a combined tension and shear failure mode is observed from the fracture rose diagram. This work suggests that formation and propagation of fractures are influenced by the stratified structure and weak cementation medium between layers.     

X-ray micro-computed tomography study of the propagation of cracks in shale during uniaxial compression

An understanding of crack propagation is critical for the development of rock mechanic models. To study the propagation of internal cracks in situ and determine their formation mechanism, a series of uniaxial compression tests on shale specimens were conducted using a novel setup that combines X-ray micro-computed tomography (X-ray micro-CT) with a uniaxial loading apparatus, which allows CT scans to be performed during compression. Macro- and micro-scale internal cracks were extracted from CT images collected after various stages of deformation through image thresholding segmentation, providing a record of the evolution of damage within the specimens, characterized by crack closure, generation, growth, and penetration. In addition, macroscopic cracks with two distinct orientations were observed and their formation mechanism was further determined. Furthermore, test results show that the distribution of pyrite grains influences the formation of cracks at the meso- and macro-scales. These results are significant for understanding crack propagation and the failure of shale.     

冻结红砂岩单轴损伤破坏CT实时试验研究

为探究冻结岩石的宏观力学特性及损伤演化机理,对20、?5、?10 ℃红砂岩进行单轴加载CT实时扫描,获得各扫描层的CT扫描图像。利用Matlab自编程序生成灰度直方图和二值图像,基于CT数H值正比于密度的关系定义岩样扫描层的安全区、损伤区、破坏区,结合温度效应、水的软化作用及冰的冻胀力对岩样的影响,定量地研究冻结岩石的损伤破坏演化规律。试验研究表明,(1) 温度由20 ℃降至?5、?10 ℃时未冻水含量减少而冻结冰含量增加,岩样强度增大、抗变形能力提高、整体稳定性提高,CT图像呈现出岩样裂纹尺寸发展减慢、损坏程度减弱的规律;(2) 不同温度下岩石单轴加载的损伤演化经历了裂隙萌生、闭合、延伸、汇集及形成宏观主裂纹的阶段,岩样变形增大发生破坏;(3) 由于端部效应,中间较两端扫描层的损伤程度高,外侧较内侧扫描层先发生损伤,损伤边缘化并向内部扩展。     

基于3D-DIC的砂岩裂纹扩展及损伤监测试验研究

裂纹监测对岩石损伤演化的认识至关重要。为研究岩石裂纹扩展及损伤变形特性,开展了含不同倾角（0°～90°）预制裂隙的标准细黄砂岩样的单轴压缩试验。利用三维数字图像相关技术（3D-DIC）获取岩样三维空间坐标下的应变分布,并结合声发射从光学与声学的角度监测了裂纹的扩展演化。由此提出了一种裂纹主应变的计算方法,定量表征岩石劣化的损伤变量D值。最后,探讨了由声发射与损伤变量D值确定岩样特征强度的影响因素。结论如下：（1）裂纹主应变反映了岩样受荷过程中同源裂纹在时间上的变化速率与空间上的扩展趋势,能较好地表征岩石的开裂行为;（2）声发射适用于确定岩样的起裂应力,不适用于损伤应力的确定,损伤变量D值所确定的起裂应力滞后于声发射,但适用于损伤应力特征值的确定;（3）结合声发射与DIC技术确定的归一化起裂应力范围为0.63～0.94、归一化损伤应力的范围为0.83～0.99;（4）预有裂隙会影响岩石的材料力学性能。随着倾角的增加,岩石的起裂应力、损伤应力及峰值应力呈增长的趋势,由于难以形成局部应变场聚集,裂纹的萌生与起裂更加困难。结果表明,3D-DIC技术的利用可以提高对岩石开裂行为的理解,对岩石的损伤监测与判识更有重要的意义。     

基于细观损伤的混凝土破裂过程的三维数值模拟与CT试验验证

在混凝土细观损伤的CT试验基础上,以密度损伤（CT数变化）变量为基础,建立了混凝土分段损伤演化方程,以此进行了混凝土试件单轴受压的细观损伤数值模拟。并从混凝土破坏图和荷载-位移曲线图两方面比较了数值模拟结果与CT试验结果,结果表明,试件破坏时裂纹扩展过程与CT观测到的相似,实现了将细观密度损伤（CT数变化）与试件的宏观力学性能的劣化相联系,为改进试验设计提供了力学依据,并使在可靠和有效的前提下用数值方法取代部分试验成为可 能。     

裂隙岩石单轴压缩损伤扩展细观机理CT分析初探

完成了单一裂纹的裂隙砂岩单轴压缩条件下细观损伤破坏机理CT实时试验,得到了裂纹萌生、发展、宏观裂纹形成、破坏等各阶段的CT图像、CT数和CT数方差。结果表明,与无预制裂隙的岩石试样相比,已有预制裂纹对新的裂纹的起裂位置及贯通性宏观破坏裂纹的形成具有重要影响,预制裂纹的存在导致裂隙砂岩试样的扩容量大于完整试样破坏时的扩容量。     

Stress corrosion cracking of Lac du Bonnet granite in tension and compression

Rocks subjected to long-term loading have been known to suffer microcracking. The rate of cracking is sensitive to the type of the applied stress (tensile or compressive), and the magnitude of the stress relative to the instantaneous strength. In addition, crack growth is influenced by the environment (pressure and temperature) including the presence or absence of moisture.For tensile loading, the sensitivity of granite to time-dependent cracking is demonstrated through a fracture mechanics test known as double torsion. The crack velocity versus stress intensity function is established for two environments, room temperature and humidity and room temperature and 100 percent humidity.For compressive loading, time dependent cracking is evaluated from creep tests conducted in uniaxial compression in the same two environments. The rate of cracking is defined by finding the functional relationship between the rate of crack growth, expressed as the rate of crack volume strain, and uniaxial compressive stress.A variety of mathematical functions has been fitted to the obtained data. The traditionally-used power and exponential relationships give good correlation for both crack velocity and crack volume strain rate.The crack volume strain rate versus stress function can be integrated to obtain a lifetime estimate for Lac du Bonnet granite. After 1 000 years of loading in uniaxial compression at room temperature and 100 percent humidity, the strength of this granite could reduce from 225 MPa to 90–100 MPa.     

单轴压缩载荷作用下双裂隙扩展的CT扫描试验

由于精选后的陶瓷材料与岩石性质相似,因此选择陶瓷作为基本材料制作中部含2条圆币状裂隙的试件,进行单轴压缩荷载作用下的CT实时扫描试验,研究试件内双裂隙的扩展和损伤演化规律。采用3种不同区域划分方案,通过CT数、CT方差和CT图像的对比,分析上、下裂隙及岩桥区域不同的扩展状况。分析表明,上裂隙区域一直以压密为主,扩展很小,对试件破坏影响较小;下裂隙区域扩展剧烈,最终形成了宏观裂纹,对试件的破坏影响较大;当上下裂隙之间的中心距离等于4倍的裂隙半径时,裂隙的扩展过程将与裂隙自身参数有关,几乎看不出裂隙之间的相互作用。     

不同频率循环荷载作用下花岗岩细观疲劳损伤量化试验研究

花岗岩宏观尺度疲劳破坏是由于细观尺度微裂纹的萌生、发育和贯通引起的,所以对处于细观尺度的微裂纹特征进行量化分析,对于理解花岗岩的动力特性有一定的意义。首先利用RMT-150B多功能全自动刚性岩石伺服试验机,采用振幅为10 MPa,频率分别为0.01、0.02、0.05、0.10、0.20、0.50、1.00 Hz的正弦循环荷载作为动力扰动,对海南昌江花岗岩试样进行单轴循环荷载试验。然后,利用扫描电镜（SEM）拍摄得到花岗岩的大量细观结构图片,运用数字图像技术获取微裂纹的细观几何信息,从方位角、长度、宽度和面积对不同荷载频率相应的花岗岩细观尺度微裂纹特征进行量化分析。研究结果表明,随着循环荷载频率的增加,微裂纹方位角发育离散性增加,而其统计均值则在某一区间内波动;微裂纹长度的发育则较快,而仅当荷载频率达到1 Hz时,宽度才有一定的发展,同时,能量耗散的方式也发生一定的变化。     

含水状态下膏溶角砾岩破裂全程的细观力学试验研究

利用新型岩石细观力学试验系统,对石家庄-太原铁路专线太行山隧道工程6#斜井的膏溶角砾岩在单轴压缩荷载作用下的岩石细观损伤裂纹扩展直至破裂的全程进行了实时观测,得到了不同含水状态下岩石初始损伤微裂纹的萌生、扩展、连接、贯通直至宏观破裂的数字显微和全场实时图像。从岩石细观损伤机制出发,结合同时获得的应力-应变曲线,将损伤破裂过程分为4个阶段,得到了含水状态下岩石损伤发展演化的初步规律,并给出了应力损伤门槛值,发现水环境影响下造成的初始损伤微裂纹是水对膨胀软岩力学性质产生软化作用的重要因素。     

应用数字图像分析法评价红砂岩渐进损伤破坏特性

为了分析含水状态下红砂岩渐进破坏行为,在已有的岩石细观加载仪上配置数字显微观测系统,对试件表面的裂纹扩展过程进行多角度的实时全场监测和局部显微放大监测,并将可监视到的图像进行录像和计算机自动采集处理。利用该系统进行了红山窑水利枢纽工程地基红砂岩在不同含水率条件下的单轴压缩破裂过程试验,应用数字图像相关技术处理试样表面细观裂纹萌生、扩展图像灰度分布图,去除伪裂纹,探讨了红砂岩动态损伤状态与其宏观力学响应之间的关联。为了获得试样表面裂纹萌生、扩展的定量描述,引入表观裂损度与损伤张量2个物理量,定量评价含水状态下红砂岩渐进损伤破坏特性,进一步分析单轴压缩状态下岩石裂纹损伤演化规律。     

Digital spatial cracking behaviors of fine-grained sandstone with precracks under uniaxial compression

X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging and digital image correlation techniques are applied to study spatial cracking behaviors of sandstone under uniaxial compression, in which the angle between precracks is 45°, 90°, and 135° and the crack depth is 7.5 mm and 10 mm, respectively. Layered anisotropy damages and spatial cracking evolution are quantitatively analyzed by the defined digital layered anisotropy index and digital damage ratio, respectively. Three cases with different array of precracks evidence the depth effects of precracks on spatial crack propagation. Results show that the failure process of samples is first controlled by the coalescence of surface cracks in 2D space and then the samples are failed by the propagation of coalesced cracks (shear cracks with different shapes). The crack types for samples with precrack depth of 7.5 mm are all shear cracks for Cases 1‑3. Nevertheless, the crack types for samples with precrack depth of 10 mm are, respectively, the half X-shape crack for Case 1, X-shape crack for Case 2, and double shell crack for Case 3. The precrack has a significant promotion effect on the failure process when the angle between the two precracks is β = 90°, and the precrack has little to no effect on the failure process when the angle between the two precracks is β = 135°. As the depth of precrack increases to 10 mm, the crack types are changed in this study. The peak strength of sample subjected to uniaxial compression decreases with increasing depth of precracks, implying the decrease of the rock strength by the discontinuity.     

节理岩石卸载损伤破坏过程CT实时检测

在国内外首次利用CT专用岩石三轴试验加载设备,完成了单一裂纹岩石卸围压应力作用下损伤破坏全过程CT实时监测试验,得到了非常清晰的节理岩石卸围压破坏全过程中从裂纹发展、贯通到破坏等各个阶段的CT图像。结果表明,节理岩石的卸载破坏具有突发性。     

单轴条件下砂岩三维破裂过程的CT观测

岩石破裂过程研究一直是岩石力学专家关注的重要问题。本文采用特制的三轴压力仪与医用西门子SOMATOM -plusCT扫描仪结合 ,对砂岩进行了室内单轴压缩试验。通过对砂岩的CT图像和密度损伤增量与应力关系曲线分析 ,结果显示 ,砂岩的破裂演化过程可分为初始损伤的压密、裂纹出现扩展、裂纹归并分岔、裂纹重分岔扩展以及裂纹惯通宏观破坏等五个阶段。在初始损伤的压密阶段 ,砂岩的密度损伤增量为正值 ,速率也为正 ;在裂纹出现扩展阶段 ,砂岩出现局部密度损伤增量减小 ,并随应力增加而由正值转为负值 ,速率也由正变负 ;在裂纹归并分岔阶段 ,砂岩的密度损伤增量全为负值 ,速率也变快 ;在裂纹重分岔扩展阶段 ,砂岩的密度损伤增量继续变负 ,但速率变慢 ;在裂纹惯通宏观破坏阶段 ,砂岩的密度损伤增量继续变负 ,速率变的更快。     

北山花岗岩热破裂室内模拟试验研究

岩石热破裂是高放废物地质处置工程中需深入研究的课题。对我国高放废物重点预选场址甘肃北山的花岗岩开展室内热破裂模拟试验研究,采用多通道温度测试仪、声发射、波速层析成像和数码显微镜等手段研究了该花岗岩热破裂过程。试验表明,（1）热破裂从试件端部开始产生,逐步向内缓慢扩展,表现出分段性和独立性;（2）根据声发射撞击率可将热破裂可分为稳定热损伤、宏观裂纹形成、宏观裂纹扩展、裂纹冷却闭合4个阶段,声发射定位的时空演化规律清楚地揭示了裂纹从试件上端部向内部扩展的规律;（3）波速层析成像指示了宏观裂纹位置及高温对岩石造成显著损伤的区域,热应力产生的损伤集中在试件边界,范围小,损伤严重,高温造成的损伤集中在钻孔附近高温区,范围较大,损伤略轻微;（4）监测多通道温度,获得了试件内的温度场并为数值模拟参数选取提供验证,采用有限元程序进行了热力耦合数值模拟,从机制上初步解释了热破裂现象,研究认为综合声发射实时监测热破裂过程和波速层析成像能实现对热损伤的量化的特性可实现岩石热破裂的动态监测和损伤量化,为今后地下实验室相关试验的开展和认识高放废物处置长期稳定性做了有意义的探索。     

基于动态CT识别的冻土单轴压缩损伤本构模型

采用连续介质力学与热力学方法,建立了冻土单轴压缩损伤本构模型。以兰州冻结黄土为例,基于冻土单轴压缩动态CT试验,对冻土附加损伤的2个阶段,即塑性损伤和微裂纹扩展损伤分别采用硬化曲线法和动态CT识别方法进行了损伤计算,在此基础上给出了冻土附加损伤与弹性应变的对应关系,建立了基于试验的冻土损伤演化方程,并进行了有效应力的计算。     

基于CT数的煤岩单轴压缩破坏的分叉与混沌分析

利用CT机对煤岩在单向压缩应力状态下的破裂演化过程进行了实时扫描,采用现代非线性科学的分叉和混沌理论对煤岩在单向压缩状态下破坏的演化过程进行了研究,对各级应力状态下煤岩的各扫描断面的CT数进行了统计分析,并在此基础上建立了CT数变化的数学模型,其结果表明：当表征煤岩微裂纹存活比和闭合效应的特征量取一定值时,其CT数的变化可用Logistic方程来描述,具有分叉与混沌特征     

Strength failure behavior and crack evolution mechanism of granite containing pre-existing non-coplanar holes: Experimental study and particle flow modeling

In this study, uniaxial compression tests were conducted on granite specimens containing three non-coplanar holes. The relationships between the stress, acoustic emission (AE) and crack evolution process were analyzed using AE measuring and photographic monitoring techniques. Particle flow code (PFC) was then used to simulate the strength failure behaviors of the specimens with three non-coplanar holes under uniaxially loading. Four typical crack coalescence patterns were identified, i.e., shear, mixed tensile and shear, and tensile. The crack evolution mechanisms around the pre-existing holes in the granite specimens were revealed by an analysis of the force and displacement fields.     

Fatigue-Damage Evolution Characteristics of Interbeded Marble Subjected to Dynamic Uniaxial Cyclic Loads

In this work, uniaxial fatigue tests combined with post-test X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning were conducted on marble samples with different interbed orientations, in order to reveal the anisotropic damage evolution characteristics during rock failure. The dynamic elastic modulus, damping ratio, fatigue deformation, damage evolution, accumulative damage modeling and crack pattern were systematically analyzed. The testing results indicate that the interbed structure in marble affects the damage evolution and the associated dynamic mechanical behaviors. The damage curve in “S” style indicates three-stage trend, namely, initial damage stage, steady damage stage and the accelerated damage stage. The damage index during cyclic deformation for marble presents obvious discrepancy. In addition, a fatigue damage prediction models was employed numerically as double-term power equations based on the experimental data. It is found that the selected damage model is suitable in modeling the rapid damage growth in the early and final stage of rock fatigue lifetime. Moreover, post-test CT scanning further reveals the anisotropic damage characteristics of marble, the crack pattern in the fractured sample is controlled by the interbed structure. What is more, the most striking founding is that the fracture degree is in consistent with the damage accumulation within the steady damage stage. Through a series of damage mechanical behavior analysis, the internal mechanism of the effect of interbed orientation on damage evolution of marble is firstly documented.

     

高含冰量冻结粉土单轴受压损伤特性试验分析

为了研究高含冰量冻结粉土的应力-应变关系及结构的内部损伤演化过程,利用SOMATOM-PLUS X射线螺旋CT机对-1、-2、-4℃下的冻结粉土进行了单轴压缩实时CT扫描试验,探讨了温度对高含冰量冻结粉土的宏观力学性能及微观损伤演化过程的影响。通过试验结果可以看出：冻结粉土的应力-应变关系曲线大致经历线弹性变形阶段、损伤演化阶段与峰后软化阶段;高负温下温度对冻结粉土初始弹性模量影响不是很明显,而对冻结粉土强度的影响则比较大;温度从-1℃降到-2℃,强度大约可以提高63%,而从-2℃降到-4℃,强度可以提高约为36%;CT扫描各层初始密度损伤并不完全相同,但各层密度随着应变变化的趋势大致相同,中环、全区的密度随着应变的增加而减小,外区密度则随着轴向应变的增加而增大。