Illuminated and shadowed contour lines: improving algorithms and evaluating effectiveness

Shadowed contour lines vary line width. Illuminated contour lines additionally vary color based on an angle of illumination. Illuminated and shadowed contour lines date back to the mid-nineteenth century, but their effectiveness compared to conventional contour lines has not been fully examined. Currently, illuminated and shadowed contour lines are not widely used in computer-based cartography because they are not included in most GIS apmaking software. This article introduces improvements to existing algorithms for creating illuminated and shadowed contour lines from digital elevation data. A software package is made available to allow mapmakers to more easily make customized illuminated and shadowed contour maps. A user study comparing illuminated and shadowed contour lines to conventional contour lines and shaded relief with approximately 400 participants was conducted. Results indicate that map-readers can interpret relative height differences between points better and quicker with illuminated contour lines than regular contour lines or shaded relief. Study participants were able to select absolute maxima on an unlabeled illuminated contour map and a labeled regular contour map with equal accuracy and speed. These findings suggest that illuminated contour lines could be used more frequently for improved visualization of terrain and other surface data on maps.     

Accuracy of contour lines using 3D bands

This article describes a new methodology for the planimetric control of contour lines. The method is based on the generation of buffers around the contour lines which define a 3D buffer around the maximum slope line. After that we analyze the quantity of points from a more accurate source which is inside this buffer. As a result, we obtain a distribution function of the control points included when we apply several widths to the buffers. We have also determined the angularity and height differences of these points. The method has been applied to several sets of contour line intervals derived from a digital elevation model (DEM) and to the contour lines of one published topographic map using the DEM as the control source. We have also analyzed the representative behaviour of the contour lines, taking into account the contour line interval and the detection of an uncertainty model based on the slope variation. This study demonstrates the viability of the proposed method for obtaining the uncertainty of the contour lines depending on a given level of confidence and the variability of this uncertainty in the map. Finally, we propose a range of contour line intervals based on the scale and slopes.     

基于不同算法等高线曲率的提取与分析

等高线曲率是一个重要的地形属性,反应了地形表面在水平方向的凹凸性,表达了地表物质运动的发散和汇合模式。基于安塞县县南沟小流域的矢量等高线数据和DEM,分别利用圆拟合算法(相邻三点法、间隔三点法和最小二乘法)和曲面拟合模型(E模型、S模型和Z模型)提取等高线曲率,通过对实地地形的对比分析,结果表明:(1)在矢量等高线数据的计算结果中,三点拟合法计算结果相比最小二乘法结果差异大,对等高线曲率空间格局分布描述更准确;(2)最小二乘法计算的结果频数分布集中程度最高,两种三点拟合法计算结果频数曲线差别微小;(3)在栅格数字高程模型的计算结果中,基于S模型计算结果在空间格局上较E模型和Z模型的结果差别大,基于E模型的计算结果对等高线曲率描述效果更好。结果能准确说明采用不同算法计算等高线曲率的差别,对在实际数字地形分析中有重要的意义,可为等高线曲率计算提供重要参考。     

基于等值线分布区域树的分层设色图自动生成研究

基于ArcGIS Engine的核心组件功能实现了空间离散点生成等值线,并针对ArcGIS Engine在生成等值线分布区域方面的不足,提出采用等值线分割确定研究区域边界、构建等值线分布区域树的算法,实现了等值线分布区域、拓扑关系构建及高程值的计算,最终实现了分层设色图的自动生成。通过浙江省金华市地下水水位等值线与分层设色图的自动生成试验,表明该文的技术路线是可行的。     

三峡库区坡地生态工程控制土壤养分流失研究——以等高植物篱为例

三峡库区紫色土陡坡地径流小区大雨强模拟降雨实验表明,以等高植物篱为代表的坡地生态工程能相当有效地减少坡面侵蚀量、径流量和坡面氮、磷养分损失量。由于植物篱和带间覆盖稿秆对径流的阻滞作用使坡面径流与表土的混合、养分溶解交换过程更加充分,径流携带的养分流失成为有效养分流失的主要方式。通过施肥改善土壤渗透特性、抗蚀性及带间覆盖能明显提高控制坡面产沙、产流和养分流失。等高植物篱-农作系统各种处理中以施用有机肥和配施有、无机肥-带间麦秆覆盖两种处理效果最好。     

基于机载激光点云数据的电力线自动提取算法

设计并开发了一种从机载激光扫描的三维点云数据中自动提取电力线的算法,采用局部高程分布直方图模式分类滤波、Hough特征空间中全局方向特征优先的线特征提取、悬挂点位置数学推算和局部分段多项式拟合的方法,有效解决了电力线提取过程中电力线点云与电塔点云的自动分类、电力线平面位置提取、电力线悬挂点提取、电力线拟合问题。最后通过实际的工程数据验证了该算法的实用性。     

自动矢量化后等高线处理研究

等高线是地形图中反映地貌形态特征的基础地理信息数据,其自动矢量化后普遍存在毛刺和断点连接等问题,该文提出基于毛刺生长点的邻域搜索剔除毛刺法和复合连接法等解决方法。在CAD环境下通过VBA编程对技术方案进行验证,结果表明该方法具有连接速度快、准确率高等优点。     

Historic reconstruction of reservoir topography using contour line interpolation and structure from motion photogrammetry

The geometry of impounded surfaces is a key tool to reservoir storage management and projection. Yet topographic data and bathymetric surveys of average-aged reservoirs may be absent for many regions worldwide. This paper examines the potential of contour line interpolation (TOPO) and Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry to reconstruct the topography of existing reservoirs prior to dam closure. The study centres on the Paso de las Piedras reservoir, Argentina, and assesses the accuracy and reliability of TOPO- and SfM- derived digital elevation models (DEMs) using different grid resolutions. All DEMs were of acceptable quality. However, different interpolation techniques produced different types of error, which increased (or decreased) with increasing (or decreasing) grid resolution as a function of their nature, and relative to the terrain complexity. In terms of DEM reliability to reproduce area–elevation relationships, processing-related disagreements between DEMs were markedly influenced by topography. Even though they produce intrinsic errors, it is concluded that both TOPO and SfM techniques hold great potential to reconstruct the bathymetry of existing reservoirs. For areas exhibiting similar terrain complexity, the implementation of one or another technique will depend ultimately on the need for preserving accurate elevation (TOPO) or topographic detail (SfM).     

南京地铁对城市公共交通网络通达性的影响及地价增值响应

以南京地铁1、2 号线为例,通过多个指标测度地铁建成前后的交通通达性及其格局变化,探讨不同类型用地对地铁通达性的增值响应模式。研究结果表明：地铁从时间成本、影响范围等方面增益了研究区交通通达性;外围绝对通达性增幅高于中心区,而“半径陷阱”作用使得中心区的相对通达性高于外围,产生“中心膨胀-外围坍缩”的通达性格局变化;地价格局变化与通达性格局变化类似,不同类型用地对地铁的增值响应模式不同,商业用地增值为对数响应模式、住宅用地为指数响应模式、工业用地为线性响应模式;地铁对城市土地升值的贡献占到总量的1/3,其中地铁对商业用地外部性作用大于住宅和工业用地。研究结果可为评估地铁对城市土地利用影响、城市经济外部性以及制订征收差别化的土地房屋税收政策提供依据。     

Influences of different surveying and mapping methods on fractal characteristics of gully-head shoulder lines

Abstract

Accurate quantification of gully shoulder lines (gully borderlines) will help better understand gully formation and evolution. Surveying and mapping are the most important ways to obtain precise morphology. To evaluate the influences of different steps of surveying and of curve-fitting methods of mapping on the morphology of the shoulder line characterized by fractal dimensions, 13 shoulder lines at gully heads were surveyed using a total station and then mapped with different methods of curve fitting, with the fractal dimensions calculated by maps compared with those measured in the field. Fractal dimensions by field measurement ranged from 1.185 to 1.456. Compared with field measurements, the average absolute errors of polygonal line, quadratic B-spline, and arc-fitting methods are 0.045, 0.040, and 0.046, respectively; the average relative errors are 3.48, 3.13, and 3.59%. Therefore, the quadratic B-spline method has a higher accuracy. The standard error of the fractal dimension tends to be larger as average step length increases. The error is ~5% when the step length is 0.7 m, which is advisable for field surveying. This study will help promote the efficiency of field surveying and mapping, and thus promote the accuracy and credibility of gully morphology.     

Automated evaluation of building alignments in generalized maps

Evaluation is a key step to examine the quality of generalized maps with respect to map requirements. Map generalization facilitates the recognition of pattern generating processes by preserving and highlighting the patterns at smaller scales. This article focuses specifically on the evaluation of building patterns in topographic maps that are generalized from large to mid scales. Currently, there is a lack of knowledge and functionality on automatically evaluating how these patterns are generalized. The issues of the evaluation range from missing formal map requirements on building alignments to missing automated evaluation techniques. This article firstly analyses the requirements (constraints) related to the generalization of building alignments. Then, it focuses on three more specific constraints, i.e. on existence, orientation of alignments and spatial distribution of composing buildings. Later, a three-step approach is proposed to (1) recognize and (2) match alignments from source and generalized datasets and (3) evaluate building alignments in generalized datasets. Besides, many-to-many and partial matching between initial and target alignments is a side effect of generalization, which reduces the reliability of the evaluation results. This article introduces a confidence indicator to document the reliability and to inform intended users (e.g. cartographers) and/or systems about the reliability of evaluation decisions. The effectiveness of our approach is demonstrated by evaluating the alignments in both interactively (manually) generalized maps and automated generalized maps. Finally, we discuss how our approach can be used to control automated generalization and identify further improvements.     

Automated classification of landform elements using object-based image analysis

This paper presents an automated classification system of landform elements based on object-oriented image analysis. First, several data layers are produced from Digital Terrain Models (DTM): elevation, profile curvature, plan curvature and slope gradient. Second, relatively homogenous objects are delineated at several levels through image segmentation. These object primatives are classified as landform elements using a relative classification model, built both on the surface shape and on the altitudinal position of objects. So far, slope aspect was not used in classification. The classification has nine classes: peaks and toe slopes (defined by the altitudinal position or the degree of dominance), steep slopes and flat/gentle slopes (defined by slope gradients), shoulders and negative contacts (defined by profile curvatures), head slopes, side slopes and nose slopes (defined by plan curvatures). Classes are defined using flexible fuzzy membership functions. Results are visually analyzed by draping them over DTMs. Specific fuzzy classification options were used to obtain an assessment of output accuracy. Two implementations of the methodology are compared using (1) Romanian datasets and (2) Berchtesgaden National Park, Germany. The methodology has proven to be reproducible; readily adaptable for diverse landscapes and datasets; and useful in respect to providing additional information for geomorphological and landscape studies. A major advantage of this new methodology is its transferability, given that it uses only relative values and relative positions to neighboring objects. The methodology introduced in this paper can be used for almost any application where relationships between topographic features and other components of landscapes are to be assessed.     

基于GIS空气质量模拟结果的表达方法研究

分析基于Surfer空气质量模拟结果等值线表达方法的优缺点,探讨基于GIS空气质量模拟结果可视化的技术与方法;借助ArcGIS Engine 9.3,集成Calpuff模型,对气象场、污染浓度时空分布特征与动态演变趋势等进行可视化试验。结果表明,基于GIS的空气质量模拟结果可视化能较好地表达研究区域的大气环境状况,对深入研究污染浓度的时空演变规律、污染影响范围与程度有很强的实际应用价值。     

Defining and generating axial lines from street center lines for better understanding of urban morphologies

Axial lines are defined as the longest visibility lines for representing individual linear spaces in urban environments. The least set of axial lines that cover the free space of an urban environment or the space between buildings constitute what is often called an axial map. This is a fundamental tool in space syntax, a theory developed by Bill Hillier and his colleagues for characterizing the underlying urban morphologies. For a long time, generating axial lines with the help of some graphic software has been a tedious manual process that is criticized for being time consuming, subjective, or even arbitrary. In this article, we redefine axial lines as the least set of individual straight line segments mutually intersected along natural streets that are generated from street center lines using the Gestalt principle of good continuity. Based on this new definition, we develop an automatic solution for generating the newly defined axial lines from street center lines. We apply this solution to six typical street networks (three from North America and three from Europe) and generate a new set of axial lines for analyzing the urban morphologies. Through a comparison study between the new axial lines and the conventional or old axial lines and between the new axial lines and natural streets, we demonstrate with empirical evidence that the newly defined axial lines are a better alternative for capturing the underlying urban structure.     

中间产品贸易网络结构及其演化的影响因素探究——基于贸易成本视角

随着经济全球化不断地扩展和加深,生产分工进入产品内分工阶段,中间产品贸易所占比重逐渐增加。中间产品贸易是产品内分工的主要表现形式。论文选取了纺织业、运输业和电子产业分别作为劳动力密集型产业、传统全球分工产业和技术密集型产业的代表,研究其贸易网络结构的特征与演化趋势。并以中国为中心的中间产品贸易网络为例,探究了影响贸易网络变化的因素。研究表明：① 3种产业的中间产品贸易网络结构有明显差异,电子产业网络联系紧密,而运输业和纺织业的结构则相对松散。② 1998—2017年,中国在全球贸易网络中的地位明显提升。③ 从影响中间产品贸易网络结构的因素来看：地理距离对中间产品出口偏好的影响显著,但是仅纺织业体现出了地理距离衰减效应,在电子和运输业中,地理距离越大,贸易偏好反而越高;沟通成本显著影响中国对目的地国家的出口偏好,中国文化在目的地国家推广能够提高贸易偏好;目的国制度质量对贸易偏好的影响显著,国家的话语权和可靠性能够提高中国对目的地国家的中间产品出口偏好,但同时,规制的质量越高,中国对其出口偏好则更低。④ 劳动力成本的差异在3种产业中均体现出十分重要的作用。     

The lively process of interdisciplinarity

Food chain research offers particular opportunities for the development of interdisciplinary problematics and approaches. For example, the issue of 'quality' cannot be interpreted solely from natural or from social science perspectives but rather requires a consilient and interdisciplinary vision. Suggesting a 'ground upwards' approach, building upon transitional objects and networks of practice and drawing upon a recently completed research project involving natural and social science research teams, this paper considers the practice and performance of interdisciplinarity as a lively process of knowledge creation that operates within what Luhmann calls 'forums of articulation' through which epistemologically mobile socio-natural entities are defined and explored.     

澳门旅游业的经济定位与粤澳旅游互动发展

本文分析了回归后澳门经济定位的几种主张,肯定了旅游业在经济社会发展中的重要地位,提出澳门的经济定位是：袖珍型国际旅游观光城。然后通过对澳门和广东旅游业发展现状及其互补性的分析,探讨了粤澳两地合作发展旅游业的可能性和现实意义,指出澳两地旅游互动发展是一种基于双赢的互利互惠的战略,它对区域经济的可持续发展和区域领域旅游业的国际化有重要意义。     

流域最佳管理措施空间配置优化研究进展

最佳管理措施(BMPs)是保护流域水环境免受农业生产活动导致的污染的一系列措施。在进行流域尺度BMPs空间配置时,一方面要考虑BMPs的生态环境效益,另一方面要考虑农业经济效益,因此流域管理决策者需要对这些措施进行空间配置优化。最佳管理措施空间配置优化(简称BMPs空间优化)是基于专家经验或者利用优化算法而得出的方案,并通过流域模型和经济模型评价其环境和经济效益,最后选择效益最优的方案,这也是当前农业非点源污染和水环境保护研究的前沿和热点。本文在介绍BMPs及其评价模型的基础上,对当前BMPs空间优化研究中的两种方法进行了剖析,对当前国内外BMPs空间优化研究现状进行了回顾和总结,最后,指出了BMPs空间优化研究中现存的问题,指出了今后BMPs空间优化研究的方向。