Lessons from a joint interpretation of vibroseis wide-angle and near-vertical reflection data in the northeastern Yilgarn, Western Australia

A wide-angle reflection seismic experiment was carried out in the Eastern Goldfields granite–greenstone terrane of the Archaean Yilgarn Craton during 2001. This was the first time in Australia that wide-angle data were collected using a vibrator source and with a high density of observations. Unlike other wide-angle surveys carried out in other parts of the world, our survey used both a smaller number of sweeps, and shorter sweeps. We recorded three sweeps (each with its own frequency range) at each vibration point. The experiment demonstrated that the sum of three 12 s sweeps using 3 large vibrators provides enough energy to record signal at offsets up to up to 60–70 km. A comparison of individual shot gathers from near-vertical data and receiver gathers from wide-angle data demonstrated higher reflectivity in near-vertical data. This may be due to differences in the frequency bands of the recording equipment. The after stack section obtained from dense wide-angle data is different from that obtained from conventional near-vertical reflection data. The conventional reflection section provides higher quality image of the crust compared to the wide-angle section. This could be explained by the low-fold in wide-angle data and differences in the acquisition and processing methodology. The wide-angle survey, which was coincident with a regional vibroseis seismic reflection transect, was focused on the Leonora–Laverton region. The survey was designed to supplement the deep seismic reflection studies with velocity information. This also created an opportunity to compare velocity model derived from wide-angle reflection seismic data with a structural image obtained from the deep common mid-point seismic reflection data, and thus refine our geological understanding of the area. A high velocity body reaching a maximum thickness of 2 km was identified exclusively from the seismic velocity model derived from wide-angle study. This body is interpreted as mafic rocks within the Archaean Granite–Greenstone Belt. The joint interpretation also shows that structural boundaries do not always follow lithological boundaries in our study area. The combination of wide-angle reflection and near-vertical reflection data has facilitated a more complete geological interpretation of the seismic data.     

Systematic variations in seismic velocity and reflection in the crust of Cathaysia: New constraints on intraplate orogeny in the South China continent

The South China continent has a Mesozoic intraplate orogeny in its interior and an oceanward younging in postorogenic magmatic activity. In order to determine the constraints afforded by deep structure on the formation of these characteristics, we reevaluate the distribution of crustal velocities and wide-angle seismic reflections in a 400 km-long wide-angle seismic profile between Lianxian, near Hunan Province, and Gangkou Island, near Guangzhou City, South China. The results demonstrate that to the east of the Chenzhou-Linwu Fault (CLF) (the southern segment of the Jiangshan–Shaoxing Fault), the thickness and average P-wave velocity both of the sedimentary layer and the crystalline basement display abrupt lateral variations, in contrast to layering to the west of the fault. This suggests that the deformation is well developed in the whole of the crust beneath the Cathaysia block, in agreement with seismic evidence on the eastwards migration of the orogeny and the development of a vast magmatic province. Further evidence of this phenomenon is provided in the systematic increases in seismic reflection strength from the Moho eastwards away from the boundary of the CLF, as revealed by multi-filtered (with band-pass frequency range of 1–4, 1–8, 1–12 and 1–16 Hz) wide-angle seismic images through pre-stack migration in the depth domain, and in the P-wave velocity model obtained by travel time fitting. The CLF itself penetrates with a dip angle of about 22° to the bottom of the middle part of the crust, and then penetrates with a dip angle of less than 17° in the lower crust. The systematic variation in seismic velocity, reflection strength and discrepancy of extensional factors between the crust and the lithosphere, are interpreted to be the seismic signature of the magmatic activity in the interest area, most likely caused by the intrusion of magma into the deep crust by lithospheric extension or mantle extrusion.     

Reviewing pre-TRANSALP DSS models

The interpretation of DSS (deep seismic soundings) profiles in Central and Eastern Alps is recalled in the paper and the models of the lower crust and Moho proposed several years ago are compared to the results of the TRANSALP seismic reflection profile. This evaluation highlights a good agreement as far as the geometry of the deep crustal structure is concerned. Therefore, the reliability of the interpretative models, previously exclusively based on DSS profiles, becomes improved. The deep structure beneath the whole Alpine range is examined reconsidering the map of the Moho boundary and the structural model already proposed for the central-eastern sector. Five main interpretative transects are put side by side, starting from the Western Alps and moving eastwards to the Swiss–Lombardian Central Alps (“European Geotraverse”), to the cross section from southern Bavaria to the Euganei Hills, to the TRANSALP profile, and finally to the easternmost profile available so far (southern Bavaria–Trieste). The comparison outlines lateral variations of the deep crustal structure as well as a sharp contrast between the Adria and the European lower crust and Moho. The transition from the Adria plate to the Dinaric domain remains, up to now, undefined.     

东庞矿突水陷落柱三维地震处理效果与对比

以东庞矿2903工作面突水陷落柱为例,利用三维地震的纵横剖面、联井剖面、等时切片与沿层切片对陷落柱进行了对比解释,并对偏移速度90%、95%和103%的3个不同地震数据体上陷落柱边界的控制效果进行了分析。结果表明:偏移速度95%的地震处理效果较好,地震沿层属性切片技术对陷落柱的解释精度最高。      

Modeling sideswipe in 2D oceanic seismic surveys from sonar data: Application to the Mariana arc

In two-dimensional (2D) marine seismic-reflection surveys, out-of-plane rough seafloor bathymetry can cause multiple ocean-bottom reflections that complicate the interpretation of shallow reflections. Although migration corrects for the in-plane position of reflectors, it cannot resolve the inherent ambiguity in their out-of-plane positions. We show how swath bathymetry, routinely collected in many such surveys, can be used to model out-of-plane seafloor reflections and prevent their misinterpretation as subsurface geology. We use both raw and gridded multi-beam bathymetry data to build images that represent seafloor reflections in migrated seismic data. Comparison of these images to the seismic sections reveals whether suspicious features are out-of-plane water bottom reflections or subsurface reflections. Multi-channel seismic surveys across the Marianas intra-oceanic arc system provide examples where rough seafloor topography produced reflections that were initially misinterpreted. We use our seafloor reflection modeling (SRM) approach to help distinguish a possible landslide from a volcanic cone, to help distinguish real from apparent fault-plane reflections bounding a sediment-filled basin, and to verify that a possible magma chamber reflection results from sub-surface structure, not seafloor sideswipe.     

地层倾角对转换波动校速度分析的影响

动校正速度的求取是三维转换波数据处理的重要环节,其精度高低对转换波的叠加成像质量影响很大。理论上转换波的速度求取受包括界面倾角在内的多种因素影响,但实际应用时这些因素往往被忽略。为证明倾角对动校速度的影响程度,依据前人的研究成果,模拟倾斜地层计算了不同倾角条件下二维测线CCP道集、三维全方位CCP道集PS波动校正速度,并对由不同倾角引起的计算精度差异进行了研究。研究结果表明,对于二维转换波CCP道集,界面倾角不同,动校拉平的速度会差别较大,即使如此也总能实现很大倾角范围内的CCP道集的同相叠加,获得较好的成像质量;对于三维全方位CCP道集,当界面倾角超过一定范围,无论怎样进行精细扫描,得到的都只能是适合特定方位的速度,无法得到适合任意方位的动校扫描速度,随着界面倾角的减小,利用速度扫描的办法可以在一定的偏移距范围内将来自不同方位的记录较平,界面倾角越小,可以校平的偏移距越大;另外由于道集内的地震记录依赖视倾角的动校正速度,在反射界面倾斜的情况下,方位不同,动校正速度不同,致使二维反射PS波资料往往比三维反射PS波资料容易叠加成像。     

Europrobe seismic reflection profiling across the eastern Middle Urals and West Siberian Basin

New deep seismic reflection data provide images of the crust and uppermost mantle underlying the eastern Middle Urals and adjacent West Siberian Basin. Distinct truncations of reflections delineate the late-orogenic strike-slip Sisert Fault extending vertically to ∼28 km depth, and two gently E-dipping reflection zones, traceable to 15–18 km depth, probably represent normal faults associated with the opening of the West Siberian Basin. A possible remnant Palaeozoic subduction zone in the lower crust under the West Siberian Basin is visible as a gently SW-dipping zone of pronounced reflectivity truncated by the Moho. Continuity of shallow to intermediate-depth reflections suggest that Palaeozoic accreted island-arc terranes and overlying molasse sequences exposed in the hinterland of the Urals form the basement for Triassic and younger deposits in the West Siberian Basin. A highly reflective lower crust overlies a transparent mantle at about 43 km depth along the entire 100 km long seismic reflection section, suggesting that the lower crust and Moho below the eastern Middle Urals and West Siberian Basin have the same origin.     

Crustal and upper mantle seismic structure of the Australian Plate, South Island, New Zealand

Seismic reflection and refraction data were collected west of New Zealand's South Island parallel to the Pacific–Australian Plate boundary. The obliquely convergent plate boundary is marked at the surface by the Alpine Fault, which juxtaposes continental crust of each plate. The data are used to study the crustal and uppermost mantle structure and provide a link between other seismic transects which cross the plate boundary. Arrival times of wide-angle reflected and refracted events from 13 recording stations are used to construct a 380-km long crustal velocity model. The model shows that, beneath a 2–4-km thick sedimentary veneer, the crust consists of two layers. The upper layer velocities increase from 5.4–5.9 km/s at the top of the layer to 6.3 km/s at the base of the layer. The base of the layer is mainly about 20 km deep but deepens to 25 km at its southern end. The lower layer velocities range from 6.3 to 7.1 km/s, and are commonly around 6.5 km/s at the top of the layer and 6.7 km/s at the base. Beneath the lower layer, the model has velocities of 8.2–8.5 km/s, typical of mantle material. The Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) therefore lies at the base of the second layer. It is at a depth of around 30 km but shallows over the south–central third of the profile to about 26 km, possibly associated with a southwest dipping detachment fault. The high, variable sub-Moho velocities of 8.2 km/s to 8.5 km/s are inferred to result from strong upper mantle anisotropy. Multichannel seismic reflection data cover about 220 km of the southern part of the modelled section. Beneath the well-layered Oligocene to recent sedimentary section, the crustal section is broadly divided into two zones, which correspond to the two layers of the velocity model. The upper layer (down to about 7–9 s two-way travel time) has few reflections. The lower layer (down to about 11 s two-way time) contains many strong, subparallel reflections. The base of this reflective zone is the Moho. Bi-vergent dipping reflective zones within this lower crustal layer are interpreted as interwedging structures common in areas of crustal shortening. These structures and the strong northeast dipping reflections beneath the Moho towards the north end of the (MCS) line are interpreted to be caused by Paleozoic north-dipping subduction and terrane collision at the margin of Gondwana. Deeper mantle reflections with variable dip are observed on the wide-angle gathers. Travel-time modelling of these events by ray-tracing through the established velocity model indicates depths of 50–110 km for these events. They show little coherence in dip and may be caused side-swipe from the adjacent crustal root under the Southern Alps or from the upper mantle density anomalies inferred from teleseismic data under the crustal root.     

基于倾角中值滤波法的浅层反射地震叠前信噪分离技术

浅层反射地震资料中面波一般比较发育,对有效信号形成干扰,现有压制面波等相千干扰的处理手段主要适用于中深部、深部地震勘探,但并不适用于浅层反射地震资料的处理。为此提出了倾角中值滤波法。该方法是基于叠前地震单炮道集上反射波与强线性干扰在￡吨域视速度上的差异,在多组视倾角范围内,求取一个最佳视倾角,将最佳视倾角的振幅序列的中值视为相干干扰,利用“减去法”,达到信噪分离。通过模型与实际资料的处理,汪明该方法能够有效分离强线性干扰,并保留了强线性干扰的特性,提高了资料的信噪比,保真度高,是浅层高分辨率地震勘探的一种理想的叠前信噪分离技术。     

深部地震资料的处理和解释方法

深部地震资料的处理类似于油气地震资料,但也有其自身的一些特点。在水平叠加处理前后,分别使用强有力的去噪和归位处理技术是获取高质量深部地震剖面的保证。在深地震时间剖面上,强能量条带的分布是大地构造格架的反映。综合测区重磁电等物化探资料进行解释,有利于提高解释精度和进一步探讨造山带的构造演化     

Lower crustal intrusions beneath the southern Baikal Rift Zone: Evidence from full-waveform modelling of wide-angle seismic data

The Cenozoic Baikal Rift Zone (BRZ) is situated in south-central Siberia in the suture between the Precambrian Siberian Platform and the Amurian plate. This more than 2000-km long rift zone is composed of several individual basement depressions and half-grabens with the deep Lake Baikal at its centre. The BEST (Baikal Explosion Seismic Transect) project acquired a 360-km long, deep seismic, refraction/wide-angle reflection profile in 2002 across southern Lake Baikal. The data from this project is used for identification of large-scale crustal structures and modelling of the seismic velocities of the crust and uppermost mantle. Previous interpretation and velocity modelling of P-wave arrivals in the BEST data has revealed a multi layered crust with smooth variation in Moho depth between the Siberian Platform (41 km) and the Sayan-Baikal fold belt (46 km). The lower crust exhibits normal seismic velocities around the rift structure, except for beneath the rift axis where a distinct 50–80-km wide high-velocity anomaly (7.4–7.6 ± 0.2 km/s) is observed. Reverberant or “ringing” reflections with strong amplitude and low frequency originate from this zone, whereas the lower crust is non-reflective outside the rift zone. Synthetic full-waveform reflectivity modelling of the high-velocity anomaly suggests the presence of a layered sequence with a typical layer thickness of 300–500 m coinciding with the velocity anomaly. The P-wave velocity of the individual layers is modelled to range between 7.4 km/s and 7.9 km/s. We interpret this feature as resulting from mafic to ultra-mafic intrusions in the form of sills. Petrological interpretation of the velocity values suggests that the intrusions are sorted by fractional crystallization into plagioclase-rich low-velocity layers and pyroxene- and olivine-rich high-velocity layers. The mafic intrusions were probably intruded into the ductile lower crust during the main rift phase in the Late Pliocene. As such, the intrusive material has thickened the lower crust during rifting, which may explain the lack of Moho uplift across southern BRZ.     

叠前时间偏移在采区三维地震老资料重新处理解释中的应用

受技术条件限制,以往采区地震资料多采用叠后时间偏移处理方法。实践证明该方法在地层倾角大、断层发育等地质条件复杂地区,很难准确成像。采用Kirchhoff叠前时间偏移的方法,合理配置参数,可以有效解决速度横向变化不大但倾角变化剧烈条件下三维地震成像精度低的问题。通过对淮北某矿区三维地震老资料应用叠前时间偏移处理结果表明：经过叠前时问偏移处理得到的数据体,其反射波特征明晰,经解释修正原断层7条、否定原断层2条、新发现断层4条,其中修正后的DF3断层已得到矿方的揭露验证,地震解释的断层性质、空间位置与实际揭露情况吻合良好。     

Structural fabric of the Central Metasedimentary Belt of southern Ontario, Canada, from deep seismic profiling

The Central Metasedimentary Belt boundary tectonic zone (CMBbtz) is a 10–20-km-wide zone of intense structural deformation within the 1.3–1.0 Ga Grenville orogen of southeastern Canada. The crustal structure of the exposed CMBbtz has been well studied, but its sub-Phanerozoic location and geometry beneath the urban development and nuclear stations of the Toronto region are not well known. A new 75-km Lithoprobe reflection profile acquired close to Toronto provides a clear image of the CMBbtz as a panel of southeast-dipping reflections that extends with moderate dip (<25°) to mid-crustal depth (25 km). These dipping reflections truncate and (or) overprint a subhorizontal band of reflectivity at 21 km depth. The seismic line is oblique to the major structural trends; cross-dip analysis shows that the southeast-dipping reflections have a strike and dip of N13°E and 25°, whereas the “subhorizontal” reflections strike and dip at N65°E and 20°, respectively. Both of these bands of reflectivity can be correlated to magnetic anomalies in the CMBbtz or its immediate footwall. Magnetic anomalies with similar strike directions are well expressed within a distinct rhomboid-shaped region (106×109 km) in the subsurface of western Lake Ontario, herein named Mississauga domain. Taken together, the seismic and magnetic data are inconsistent with existing models, in which the CMBbtz is extrapolated beneath Lake Ontario along a linear magnetic anomaly. We propose a revised subsurface trace of the CMBbtz along the western edge of the Mississauga domain. Small earthquakes in western Lake Ontario appear to cluster along trends co-linear with ENE magnetic anomalies, suggesting a possible degree of basement tectonic control on local intraplate seismicity.     

利用地震模拟技术研究逆断层的断点位置

在地震资料解释阶段,可根据解释结果进行正演模拟,以验证解释结果的可靠性,并通过模型正演方式了解地下波场的细微变化,提高解释精度。依据内蒙古鄂托克前旗沙章图矿区DF2逆断层的赋存形态,建立的地质模型,并围绕其逆断层的断点位置、埋深、地层速度等,对各种接收排列进行射线追踪实验。通过改变开动的道数、道距及偏移距,观察各种参数下射线追踪的分布情况及模拟时间剖面的面貌。正演结果表明利用射线模型追踪的模拟地震反射剖面与实际时间剖面完全吻合,其确定的逆断层断点位置及断面倾角合理。     

山地大倾角地层三维地震资料处理研究

山地大倾角地层的三维地震资料处理的核心问题是如何解决3D反射面元发散，增加反射面元内道集同相叠加，而静校正技术和偏移成像技术正是解决这一问题的关键技术。以XJ区的三维地震勘探为例，对其资料进行综合静校正及叠前偏移成像技术处理，较好地解决了该区的地层构造成像和分辨率问题，保证了勘探精度。     

Interpretation of ambiguous reflection data by imaging processes: An example profile crossing steep submarine valley at the sea bottom

The determination of the geometry of a vertical structure is one of the most important problems in the conventional stacking process used as an imaging process. The horizontal layers in depths of the earth are easily displayed in the seismic time section, but the dipping and folded layers are not correctly displayed in the reflection data. The present study addresses the same problem for the data collected from a profile of a steep marine valley and that of an offshore extension of the Ganos fault at the westernmost part of the Tekirdağ basin, Marmara Sea, NW Turkey. In the previous studies, the fault was interpreted as a low-angle reverse fault juxtaposing between the Plio-Quaternary and the Miocene strata in the time migration section. However, the results of the extensive analyses in this study show that the close position of a newly interpreted Miocene anticline to the synformal structure of the sea bottom makes the data ambiguous, whereas the subvertical fault and the other events coming away from the fault plane causes complexity. To eliminate misinterpretation due to ambiguity and complexity as in the previous analysis, the data are reinterpreted by pre-stack Kirchhoff depth migration in addition to the conventional stacking process. The new interpretation is checked through the synthetics data created from the model having appropriate parameters of the data used. The results have shown the existence of an anticline that is cored by the Miocene strata and overlain by the Plio-Quaternary strata 200 m below the sea bottom. The Ganos fault is imaged as disturbing all the layers down the way and as having a listric geometry and steeper dip angle (75° N) at shallow depths but decreasing downward. This study examples the importance of considering the problems of the complex geometry and choosing appropriate imaging technique for analyzing seismic reflection data collected over an area with known vertical fault and related tectonic complexity.     

火成岩覆盖区地震有效成像技术探讨及其在辽西金羊盆地油气调查中的应用

辽西金羊盆地是下辽河盆地外围盆地群中面积最大的中生代盆地,盆地浅层火成岩广泛发育、其厚度大、期次较多,受火成岩对地震信号屏蔽以及该地区复杂的地震地质条件的影响,使得地震勘探采集的原始资料信噪比低、火成岩下伏地层反射能量弱,给地震资料的有效成像带来了极大挑战。本文根据原始地震资料特点,采用针对性的采集、处理技术,首先从采集方面以大能量激发、低频检波器接收,并且处理中应用反射能量补偿、静校正、叠前多域去噪等几项技术进一步提高资料的深层反射能量和信噪比,最后通过高精度速度场建模与地震偏移成像技术的多种方法对比,优选叠前时间偏移技术进行最终成像。与以往地震资料比较,采用这套有效成像技术重新处理的地震剖面信噪比、分辨率明显提高,更重要的深层反射能量得以有效恢复,火成岩的下伏地层反射信号清晰、地层接触关系明确,特别是大倾角地层及断层的成像得以明显改善,为后续的构造解释和勘探潜力区评价提供了高质量的地震资料。     

Integration of P- and SH-wave high-resolution seismic reflection and micro-gravity techniques to improve interpretation of shallow subsurface structure: New Madrid seismic zone

Shallow high-resolution seismic reflection surveys have traditionally been restricted to either compressional (P) or horizontally polarized shear (SH) waves in order to produce 2-D images of subsurface structure. The northernmost Mississippi embayment and coincident New Madrid seismic zone (NMSZ) provide an ideal laboratory to study the experimental use of integrating P- and SH-wave seismic profiles, integrated, where practicable, with micro-gravity data. In this area, the relation between “deeper” deformation of Paleozoic bedrock associated with the formation of the Reelfoot rift and NMSZ seismicity and “shallower” deformation of overlying sediments has remained elusive, but could be revealed using integrated P- and SH-wave reflection. Surface expressions of deformation are almost non-existent in this region, which makes seismic reflection surveying the only means of detecting structures that are possibly pertinent to seismic hazard assessment. Since P- and SH-waves respond differently to the rock and fluid properties and travel at dissimilar speeds, the resulting seismic profiles provide complementary views of the subsurface based on different levels of resolution and imaging capability. P-wave profiles acquired in southwestern Illinois and western Kentucky (USA) detect faulting of deep, Paleozoic bedrock and Cretaceous reflectors while coincident SH-wave surveys show that this deformation propagates higher into overlying Tertiary and Quaternary strata. Forward modeling of micro-gravity data acquired along one of the seismic profiles further supports an interpretation of faulting of bedrock and Cretaceous strata. The integration of the two seismic and the micro-gravity methods therefore increases the scope for investigating the relation between the older and younger deformation in an area of critical seismic hazard.     

石油地震勘探中的薄层解释研究方法综述

概述了当前石油地震勘探中薄层研究的下列主要方面:关于薄层的标定,主要方法有垂直地震剖面法、理论合成记录法、平均速度法和多档滤波法;薄层厚度求取的主要方法有:相对振幅—时间厚度法、间接振幅法、反射波特征点法、积分振幅与视时差乘积法、窄带滤波法以及标定曲线法和振幅谱能量等方法;薄储集体圈定及横向预测,主要着重于由界面型剖面向岩层型剖面转换方法的研究,如:地震岩性模拟技术、合成声波测井等方法。     

叠前时间偏移技术在南海水合物地震资料处理中的应用

叠前时间偏移处理技术是复杂地区地震资料高精度成像处理的有效手段。从偏移技术方法原理和处理流程入手,讨论了偏移参数选择和速度分析等关键技术,并将其应用于南海水合物地震资料处理中,获得了准确的叠前时间偏移速度场,提高了研究区水合物层段的地震成像质量。处理效果显示,叠前时间偏移剖面较叠后偏移剖面成像精度明显提高,剖面波组特征突出,地层反射信息丰富,有效地提高了水合物解释的准确性。