Environmental significance of acid sulfate “clays” as waste covers

The current regulatory requirement for cover soils in landfills and surface impoundments is that the soils attain, upon compaction, a very low hydraulic conductivity of 10^–7 cm/s or less. Although the influence of the interaction between waste chemicals and clay soil on waste migration has been extensively studied, attempts to incorporate as design components the effects of sulfidic (sulfide-bearing) clays on the integrity of clay caps have largely been ignored. These influences may include increasing the permeability of the cover to percolating moisture, enhancing erosion of clay covers, and killing of vegetation on downslopes of the cover. Consequently, it is suggested that clay cap designers test the acid-generating capabilities of potential clay cap materials before exploiting these earth formations. This can be done by incubating a sample of the candidate capping material (with pH > 3.5) under moist aerobic conditions (field capacity) at room temperature. The soil will be said to contain sulfidic materials if it shows a drop in pH (1 1 by weight in water) of 0.5 or more units to a pH value of 4.0 or less within eight weeks. Decisions should then be made as to whether the soil should be avoided or used with amendments to the cap design.Although some of the authors of this article are employees of the United States Enviornmental Agency, the paper has not been subjected to Agency review and no official endorsement should be inferred.     

Numerical simulation of desiccation cracking in a thin clay layer using 3D discrete element modeling

Desiccation cracking of clay soil is of critical importance in many applications, such as industrial waste containment, hydraulic barriers, road embankments, and agricultural operations. The factors that influence cracking are known qualitatively, but it is not clear how to predict the initiation and propagation of cracks. This study presents a discrete element approach to modeling desiccation cracking in thin clay layers, considering material property changes. First, an aggregate shrinkage model based on the aggregate structure of clay was proposed, and the drying shrinkage of clay soil was modeled by imposing drying shrinkage kinetics for each aggregate at the micro-scale. Second, the clay soil was represented by an assembly of aggregates linked by bonds, and desiccation cracking of the clay layer was modeled using a three-dimensional discrete element code (PFC3D), with the aid of the embedded programming language FISH. When the clay layer is sufficiently thin, the water content gradient along the section can be neglected; thus, the shrinkage kinetics are the same for all of the grains of clay. In the model based on the discrete element method (DEM), the bond strength and contact stiffness changed during drying. Their changes were determined by matching the simulation results with the experimental data. Third, the DEM approach was validated by reproducing experimental desiccation tests performed on a thin clay layer in a disk shape. The geometric parameters of surface cracks were quantified using image analysis techniques and were compared with experimental observations. Fourth, some factors of influence, such as the sample thickness, the properties of the soil–base interface, micro-mechanical parameters, and shrinkage parameters, were investigated using the DEM model. The results obtained from the DEM analyses were compared with the results of prior research in this field of study. The approach used in this study is very promising for simulating desiccation cracking in thin clay soil because the model captures the initiation and propagation mechanism of desiccation cracks. Although this study was carried out on surface cracking in a thin clay layer, the extension of this methodology is of potential benefit not only for predicting three-dimensional desiccation cracking in real clay liners but also for modeling cracking in other materials with properties that vary with water content or temperature, such as concrete and rock.     

无定形态游离氧化铁脱水老化对粘性土物理性质的影响

无定形态游离氧化铁以其自身的特性及其脱水老化作用,对粘性土的物理性质、水理性质乃至工程性质产生了一定程度的影响。本文就粘性土的物理性质、水理性质及力学性质在无定形态游离氧化铁脱水过程中的变化进行了初步研究,期望对粘性土的土工测试方法及参数的合理测定有所裨益。     

Hyperfiltration of Nacl Solutions Using a Simulated Clay/Sand Mixture at Low Compaction Pressures

It is widely recognized that clays and shales can demonstrate membrane properties. When a hydraulic head differential exists across a membrane-functioning clay-rich barrier, some of the solute is rejected by the membrane. This process is known as hyperfiltration. Some shallow geologic environments, including aquitards bounding shallow perched aquifers and unconfined aquifers, some river and stream beds, and some lake bottoms contain clay–soil mixes. Many engineering structures such as landfill liners, mixed soil augered barriers, and retention pond liners also consist of soil–clay mixes. No previous testing has been performed to investigate the likelihood that hyperfiltration may occur in such mixed soils. Therefore, we performed five experiments using different mixes of Na-bentonite and glass beads (100, 50, 25, 12 and 0% clay) to determine if any of these mixes exhibited membrane properties and to investigate what effect clay content had upon the membrane properties of the soil. Each mixture was compacted to 345 kPa and the sample mixtures were 0.58–0.97 mm thick. All the experiments used an approximately 35 ppm Cl⁻ solution under an average 103 kPa hydraulic head. Experimental results show that all the simulated clay–sand mixtures do exhibit measurable membrane properties under these conditions. Values of the calculated reflection coefficient ranged from a low of 0.03 for 12% bentonite to 0.19 for 100% bentonite. Solute rejection ranged from 5.2% for 12% clay to a high of over 30% for the 100% clay. The 100% glass bead sample exhibited no membrane properties.     

基于Hewlett理论的支护桩桩间距计算方法研究

基坑支护桩桩间距设计通常基于经验取值,并不考虑土拱的作用和桩间土的稳定性。基于Hewlett理论分析了基坑支护桩桩间土拱效应,并开展了对桩间土整体稳定性的研究,分别得出了满足两种稳定条件的桩身荷载分担比公式和桩间距公式。通过对设置在四种土质中的支护桩桩间土拱的计算分析发现：对于强度指标较高的黏土、粉土,桩宽比为0.5时,荷载分担比即达到100%,而对于强度指标较低的淤泥质黏土,桩宽比为0.8时,荷载分担比方达到100%;桩间土整体稳定性对于桩间距的要求较为宽松。对于常规桩径的支护桩,桩间距的设计应按土拱稳定为控制准则,但对于设置在内摩擦角较大而黏聚力较小土层中的大直径桩,应按桩间土整体稳定为控制准则     

Flow and transport through clay membrane barriers

Flux equations for liquid and solute migration through clay barriers that behave as semi-permeable membranes used in waste containment and remediation applications, known as clay membrane barriers (CMBs), are discussed. The results of a simplified analysis of flow through a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) using measured values for the chemico-osmotic efficiency coefficient (ω) of the GCL indicate a total liquid flux that counters the outward Darcy (hydraulic) flux due to chemico-osmosis associated with clay membrane behavior of the GCL. Also, the solute (contaminant) flux through the GCL is reduced relative to the solute flux that would occur in the absence of membrane behavior due to chemico-osmotic counter advection and solute restriction. Since diffusion commonly controls solute transport through GCLs and other low-permeability clay barriers, the implicit (empirical) correlation between ω and the effective salt-diffusion coefficient of the migrating contaminant is an important consideration with respect to contaminant restriction in CMBs.     

卫生填埋场复合边坡地震稳定性和永久变形分析

采用非连续变形分析方法,对卫生填埋场复合型边坡的地震稳定性和永久变形进行了详细地计算分析,探讨了边坡倾角、土与土工膜之间的摩擦系数、边坡的长度、覆盖土层的厚度以及地震加速度对边坡的稳定性和永久变形的影响。由边坡的破坏形式,讨论了复合型边坡的破坏机理,指出了文献[1]给出的计算公式的适用条件以及局限性,为卫生填埋场复合型衬垫层的稳定设计提供参考。     

Insight into the effects of clay mineralogy on the cyclic behavior of silt–clay mixtures

Results of a systematic testing program showed that the cyclic behavior of silt–clay mixtures is greatly influenced by the dominant clay minerals in the mixture. In particular, it was demonstrated that given the same amount of clay/clay mineral and/or same value of plasticity index, the montmorillonitic soils have the highest cyclic strength, followed by the illitic soils, and then by the kaolinitic soils. Moreover, the rate of increase in cyclic strength with increasing % clay mineral and PI is again the highest in the montmorillonitic soil, lowest in the kaolinitic soil and intermediate in the illitic soil. Therefore, without considering clay mineralogy, the % clay fraction, % clay mineral and plasticity index are unreliable indicators of the liquefaction susceptibility of fine-grained soils. The differing adhesive bond strength each clay mineral develops with the silt particles is deemed to largely explain the observed differences in the response of the three different soil mixtures to cyclic loading.     

Pedosedimentary,cultural and environmental significance of paleosols within pre-hispanic agricultural terraces in the southern Peruvian Andes

Paleosols were exposed in sections through four abandoned pre-Hispanic agricultural terraces surrounding an infilled mire basin in the southern Peruvian Andes. The two paleosols beneath the Tocotoccasa terrace represent the original ‘natural’ solum and a later soil formed after construction of the agricultural terrace, probably during the early Middle Horizon cultural period (615–695 AD). The soil at the current surface developed subsequent to the building up and reconstruction of the terrace, possibly during the late Late Intermediate period (1200–1400 AD). Micromorphology revealed an unexpected abundance of clay coatings within the upper terrace paleosol and surface terrace soil, a phenonemon attributed to the migration and/or accumulation of neoformed clay produced from the weathering of very unstable volcanic clasts, perhaps fuelled by arid/humid climatic oscillations and/or seasonal input of irrigation waters. The paleosols at Tocotoccasa could not be correlated with any degree of confidence with those beneath the other three terraces due to differences in pedosedimentary properties and uncertainties over chronological controls. Thus, it seems likely that either the terraces were (re)constructed and utilised over different cultural periods or that there is significant variation in the extent of weathering of material used for reconstruction of the terraces. Unfortunately, it cannot be ascertained from the data available whether the terraces were abandoned for any significant period of time prior to reconstruction and, if so, whether this was a regional phenomenon related to climate, social, or economic changes.     

江汉平原过渡带黏性层状土弥散试验与模拟研究

为研究江汉平原—大别山区过渡带黏性层状土中溶质迁移的规律,以保守性阴离子Br-为示踪剂,通过等温吸附试验、一维弥散试验、HYDRUS-1D软件模拟反演手段,研究了Br-在黏性层状土中的吸附参数、迁移规律,模拟反演其弥散参数。结果表明：（1）Freundlich模型和Langmuir模型均能较好的拟合吸附试验结果,随着土壤中黏粒比例的增大,土壤对Br-的饱和吸附量有所增加;（2）层状土中土壤质地与结构均会影响穿透曲线的形状,但一维饱和土柱中的弥散过程主要取决于含水介质系统中黏性颗粒的占比,黏粒的增加会对溶质运移产生阻碍作用;（3）通过HYDRUS-1D软件构建模型反演弥散参数,R2均大于0.991,拟合效果较好,分析发现层状土中无论土壤组成类型还是层厚及排序的影响,其本质都是改变了土壤的平均孔隙流速从而影响弥散作用,平均孔隙流速越小其弥散系数越小;（4）试验中粉质黏土弥散系数约为0.005～0.048 cm2/d,远远小于下部砂土弥散系数0.524～7.477 cm2/d,差值达到了至少两个数量级,表明研究区内厚层黏土为控制地层,会较大程度阻碍地下水中溶质运移,上部含水层中的污染物或有机...     

Postglacial diatom stratigraphy in relation to the recession of Glacial Lake Agassiz

The sediment and diatom stratigraphy of a small pond on The Pas moraine, near Grand Rapids, Manitoba, reveals a change in sedimentary environment related directly to the last stages of Glacial Lake Agassiz. Beach sands were replaced by clay 7300 ¹⁴C y. a., then by organic silt and, at 4000 ¹⁴C y. a. by coarse organic detritus; the corresponding diatom assemblages were (I) a predominantly planktonic spectrum in beach sands, (II) a rich assemblage of nonplanktonic forms, and (III) a distinctly nonplanktonic acidophilous spectrum. These results confirm Elson's (1967) reconstruction of the extent and chronology of the final (Pipun) stage of Glacial Lake Agassiz. The sedimentary environments change from a sandy beach of a large lake at 7300 BP to a small, shallow eutrophic pond with clay and silt deposition from 7000 to 4000 BP. From 4000 BP to the present, organic detritus was deposited in a shallow pond that tended toward dystrophy.     

滇西北红粘土的工程地质特性及其灾害效应

在野外地质调查的基础上,结合室内土工试验,系统分析了滇西北红粘土的物质组成、物性特征和工程地质特性,并以此为基础探讨了其地质灾害效应。研究结果表明：滇西北红粘土粒度组成主要以粘粒为主,粘土矿物成分比较复杂,在丽江以南其矿物成分主要以高岭石（K）为主,在丽江以北则以伊利石/蒙脱石（I/S）混层矿物为主。此外,滇西北红粘土具有含水量高、重度低、塑性高、膨胀性弱等物性特征,在天然状态下比较稳定,但是随着含水量的增加其土体强度大大降低,易引发滑坡、水土流失等地质灾害。     

细粒含量对粉土动孔压发展模式影响的试验研究

采用多功能静动液压剪切仪进行了粉土动荷载下的孔压试验,探讨了黏粒含量和粉粒含量对重塑粉土动孔压发展的影响。试验模拟大震时细粒含量影响的孔压发展规律,对已有的指数形式孔压模式进行修正,以便模拟初始液化发生后达到一定液化程度的实际情况,该模式包含2个参数a和b。研究结果表明,细粒含量对粉土动孔压发展影响较大,其影响主要体现在孔压发展模式参数b上。粉土中粉粒含量与孔压参数b的关系呈单调的线性关系,而黏粒含量与孔压参数b的关系则不是单调的线性关系,是在黏粒含量为8 %时孔压参数b达到的最大值,试验数据验证该修正的动孔压模式有更广泛的应用性。     

Performance of Stone Columns in Soft Clay: Numerical Evaluation

Stone columns (or granular piles) are increasingly being used for ground improvement. This study investigates the qualitative and quantitative improvement in soft clay by stone columns. Finite element analyses were carried out to evaluate the performance of stone columns in soft clay. A drained analysis was carried out using Mohr–Coulomb’s criterion for soft clay, stones, and sand. The interface elements were used at the interface between the stone column and soft clay. Analyses and calculations were carried out to determine equivalent parameters of soil/columns system. The bearing capacity ratio (BCR) of the soil has been estimated for homogeneous and heterogeneous soil. The results have shown that the values of BCR for homogeneous soil are obviously higher than those for heterogeneous soil.     

水泥土搅拌桩软土地基土体动力特性的共振柱试验研究

开展对水泥土搅拌桩软土地基土体试样的GDS（Global Distribution System）共振柱试验,研究不同剪应变、围压、水泥土置换率对土体动力特性的影响。结果表明,水泥土搅拌桩软土地基土体的动剪切模量G和阻尼比D随剪应变? 变化趋势与软黏土一致,在小应变范围内围压和置换率对土体的动剪切模量G和阻尼比D的影响显著,随着剪应变? 增大,围压和置换率的影响减弱;水泥土搅拌桩软土地基土体的最大动剪切模量Gmax与围压表现出良好的线性关系,围压越大,提高水泥土的置换率对土体最大动剪切模量Gmax增强效果越明显。研究结果可为地区水泥土搅拌桩软土地基土体动力参数的取值提供一定的参考。     

Containment landfills: the myth of sustainability

A number of major problems associated with the containment approach to landfill management are highlighted. The fundamental flaw in the strategy is that dry entombment of waste inhibits its degradation, so prolonging the activity of the waste and delaying, possibly for several decades, its stabilisation to an inert state. This, coupled with uncertainties as to the long-term durability of synthetic lining systems, increases the potential, for liner failure at some stage in the future whilst the waste is still active, leading to groundwater pollution by landfill leachate. Clay liners also pose problems as the smectite components of bentonite liners are subject to chemical interaction with landfill leachate, leading to a reduction in their swelling capacity and increase in hydraulic conductivity. Thus, their ability to perform a containment role diminishes with time. More critically, if diffusion rather than advection is the dominant contaminant migration mechanism, then no liner will be completely impermeable to pollutants and the containment strategy becomes untenable.

There are other less obvious problems with the containment strategy. One is the tendency to place total reliance on artificial lining systems and pay little attention to local geological/hydrogeological conditions during selection of landfill sites. Based on the attitude that any site can be engineered for landfilling and that complete protection of groundwater can be effected by lining systems, negative geological characteristics of sites are being ignored. Furthermore, excessive costs in construction and operation of containment landfills necessitate that they are large scale operations (superdumps), with associated transfer facilities and transport costs, all of which add to overall waste management costs. Taken together with unpredictable post-closure maintenance and monitoring costs, possibly over several decades, the economics of the containment strategy becomes unsustainable. Such a high-cost, high-technology approach to landfill leachate management is generally beyond the financial and technological resources of the less wealthy nations, and places severe burdens on their economies. For instance, in third world countries with limited water resources, the need to preserve groundwater quality is paramount, so expensive containment strategies are adopted in the belief that they offer greatest protection to groundwater. A final indictment of the containment strategy is that in delaying degradation of waste, the present generations waste problems will be left for future generations to deal with.

More cost-effective landfill management strategies take advantage of the natural hydrogeological characteristics and attenuation properties of the subsurface. The ‘dilute and disperse’ strategy employs the natural sorption and ion exchange properties of clay minerals, and it has been shown that in appropriate situations it is effective in attenuating landfill leachate and preventing pollution of water resources. Operated at sites with thick clay overburden sequences, using a permeable cap to maximise rainfall infiltration and a leachate collection system to control leachate migration, ‘dilute and disperse’ is a viable leachate management strategy. Hydraulic traps are relatively common hydrogeological situations where groundwater flow is towards the landfill, so effectively suppressing outwards advective flow of leachate. This approach is also best employed with a clay liner, taking advantage of the attenuation properties of clays to combat diffusive flow of contaminants. These strategies are likely to guarantee greater protection of groundwater in the long term.     

土壤中14过渡矿物的特征及其地质意义

14过渡矿物是广泛发育的典型成土作用产物,其矿物学特征及含量变化不仅能记录成土时期的气候、环境条件,也可以作为这些土壤发生分类和类型区分的依据。通过对有关14过渡矿物研究成果系统全面的分析,阐明了这种过渡矿物的谱学特征、层间离子类型、鉴定依据及其成因,并在此基础上提出对14过渡矿物的鉴定实验流程。此外,高分辨透射电子显微技术的应用给14过渡矿物的研究提供了极大的保障,利用高分辨透射电子显微镜可以研究14过渡矿物的形成、转化关系。14过渡矿物对气候环境十分敏感,且形成于特征的干湿交替、适度的风化及弱酸性环境条件,因此,这种过渡矿物有望作为成土时期的气候环境代用指标。     

Effect of cyclic loading on the residual strength of over-consolidated silty clay in a ring shear test

In this paper, the effect of cyclic loading on drained residual strength of over-consolidated silty clay is examined based on the results from ring shear tests which were conducted with a sophisticated ring shear apparatus. Initially sheared to form shear zones under different pre-consolidation pressures and at different shear rates (SRs), soil samples were then tested under cyclic loading. After the cyclic loading application, the samples were re-sheared while the corresponding shear strengths were measured. The results show that the effect of cyclic loading on residual strength is noticeable. The effect is related to pre-consolidation history and SR of the soil samples. Under conditions of relatively low over-consolidation ratio (OCR), the soil samples show an increase in residual strength with decreasing SR after cyclic loading. Most of the peak strength values after cyclic loading are higher than the residual strength values obtained before cyclic loading. Two effects of cyclic loading on the residual strength are identified: (a) If OCR is less than or equal to 3.0, the residual strengths measured after cyclic loading are larger than those before cyclic loading; (b) If OCR is greater than or equal to 3.5, the residual strengths after cyclic loading tend to become lower than those in the shear tests before cyclic loading.     

河北平原农田土壤重金属元素Pb、Hg地球化学行为的影响因素

土壤重金属元素地球化学行为是目前国内外研究的热点。研究显示重金属元素地球化学行为与土壤理化性质有密切关系。本文选择河北平原农田为研究区,采集了325个根系土样品,测定了Pb、Hg有效态含量,并探讨了影响其地球化学行为的主要因素。研究表明:(1)Pb、Hg水溶态和离子交换态与土壤p H值呈显著负相关关系,土壤酸化使Pb、Hg有效性增加,直接导致农作物中Pb、Hg含量增加,保持土壤p H值在弱酸性至弱碱性范围,防止土壤酸化,可以降低重金属危害。(2)土壤中有机质含量与Pb、Hg全量呈显著的正相关性,但与水溶态和离子交换态呈负相关。所以土壤中有机质的增加可以降低Pb、Hg元素水溶态和离子交换态含量。(3)随着土壤黏粒的增加,Pb、Hg水溶态和离子交换态含量降低,说明黏粒可以吸附一定量的重金属离子,与重金属元素Pb、Hg地球化学行为存在一定关系。土壤p H值、有机质、黏粒是控制重金属元素Pb、Hg地球化学行为的重要因素。