Archaean stromatolites of the Belingwe Greenstone Belt,Zimbabwe (Rhodesia)

The stromatolites of the Belingwe Greenstone Belt (approximately 2700 Ma old) are perhaps the best-developed Archaean stromatolites yet found. Exposures occur on two stratigraphic levels, both part of the “Bulawayan” in Rhodesian stratigraphic terminology (Wilson et al., 1978). The extensive outcrops show a wide variety of stromatolites, including forms similar to Baicalia, Conophyton, Irregularia and Stratifera. Many stromatolites occur in cyclic units, possibly reflecting periodic changes in lagoonal conditions. Associated sedimentary rocks were deposited in a very shallow-water environment and some display well-developed desiccation features. Currently held concepts concerning the evolution of stromatolites and their usefulness in biostratigraphy do not appear to be supported by the evidence from Belingwe.     

Focal mechanisms of the Atlas earthquakes,and tectonic implications

The determination of the focal mechanisms of the strongest shocks in the Atlas chain and the Canary Islands area reveals that the present-day tectonics along this range is a compression reflected either by reverse or dextral strike-slip faulting along the ENE-WSW trends. All the solutions are consistent with: 1. the other focal mechanism solutions determined further north in the Azores-Gibraltar, Alboran, Rif and Tell areas; 2. the NNW to NW trending compression inferred from other methods such as neotectonics,in situ stress field measurements and plate motions.

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Zusammenfassung Die Bestimmung des Erdbebenherdmechanismus der stärksten Beben im Atlasgebirge und des Gebietes der Kanarischen Inseln gibt zu erkennen, daß die aktuellen tektonischen Bewegungen entlang dieses Bereiches kompressiv wirksam sind. Dies zeigt sich entweder anhand von Überschiebungen oder an dextralen Blattverschiebungen. Alle Ergebnisse sind übereinstimmend mit: 1. den anderen Erdbebenherdmechanismen weiter im Norden liegender Regionen (Azoren - Gibraltar, Alboran, Rif und Tell); 2. die nach NNW bis NW wirkende Kompression, welche von anderen Methoden abgeleitet wurde (Neotektonik,in-situ Spannungsmessungen und Plattenkinematik).

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Résumé La détermination des mécanismes au foyer des séismes les plus importants de la chaîne atlasique et des îles Canaries révèle que la situation tectonique actuelle le long de cette chaîne est une compression reflétée par le jeu de failles soit inverses, soit décrochantes dextres le long des accidents ENE-WSW. Toutes les solutions sont compatibles avec: (1) les autres mécanismes déterminés plus au nord, dans les régions d'Açores-Gibraltar, Alboran, Rif et Tell; (2) la compression orientée NNW-SSE à NW-SE déterminée à l'aide d'autres méthodes comme la néotectonique, les mesures de contraintesin situ et la cinématique des plaques.

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Source mechanisms and tectonic significance of historical earthquakes along the nankai trough,Japan

Two recent and three historical earthquakes which occurred along the Nankai trough, marking the northern plate boundary between the Philippine Sea and the Asian Plate, are studied mainly on the basis of the data of crustal deformations and tsunami waves. These earthquakes are the 1946 Nankaido, the 1944 Tonankai, the 1854 Ansei I, II and the 1707 Hoei earthquakes. They are all interpreted as low-angle thrust faults at the plate boundary, with the oceanic side underthrusting northwestward against southwestern Japan. The fault parameters of the historical earthquakes are assumed here to be common to those of the recent two earthquakes, except for the magnitude of dislocation.The entire fault region, which extends for 530 km from western Shikoku Island in the west to the Tokai district in the east, is divided into four fault planes, which are denoted the planes A, B, C and D, from west to east, respectively. Then, the five earthquakes may be attributed to the planes A, B, C and D, in the following manner: the Nankaido earthquake, A + B; the Tonankai earthquake, C; the Ansei II earthquake, A + B; the Ansei I earthquake, C + D; and the Hoei earthquake, A + B + C + D.The latest cycle of earthquake migration seems incomplete as proved by the recent inactivity in D. Consequently, the future major earthquake next to occur is expected there, off the Tokai district. Eight further ancient earthquakes from A.D. 684 to 1605 are also discussed. Taking the results of the foregoing studies into consideration, their sequence is well interpreted by the four migration cycles. Topographical data, tilt of coastal terraces and location of hinge lines, prove that the thrusting has continued all along the extension of the Nankai trough for at least 300,000 years.     

Seismic risk in Italy for earthquakes of intensity IX (Mercalli scale)

In this report the yearly probability of an earthquake of intensity IX (Mercalli scale) in any area in Italy and the error at 95% of confidence have been evaluated; for the purposes of this evaluation, Italy has been divided into small areas separated by a distance of 3' both in latitude and in longitude.

To evaluate the yearly probability, two atenuation curves for volcanic earthquakes and a series of probabilistic curves for tectonic earthquakes have been determined on the basis of about 700 earthquakes, for which it has been possible to draw isoseisms.

Isoprobability and equal-error curves have been drawn up on a 1: 1,000,000 scale map.     

Scaling Caribbean (in)dependence

Recently there has been much ado about the territorial implications of globalization. Geographers have made a significant contribution to these debates, pointing to the tension between forces of deterritorialization and those of re-territorialization. In particular, there is a growing body of work in political and economic geography that draws attention to processes of re-scaling where, at the same time as scales such as the nation-state appear threatened, new scales of economic, political and social regulation emerge. Much of this literature, however, focuses on the ability of already powerful states to re-scale their activities and manage the border crossing abilities of global capital. In this paper I examine the process of supra-national regional integration in the Caribbean as an example of re-scaling and re-territorialization in a post-colonial context. I draw attention to the historic permeability of Caribbean states and argue regionalism in the Caribbean needs to be viewed as part of a longer process of defining economic, political and cultural independence in what, for post-colonial states, has always been an interdependent world economy. This analysis suggests that while new scales can be understood as spatialized attempts to manage changing global economics, they are also ambivalent productions, and as such, sites of resistance as well as domination and regulation.     

Comparison between deformation deduced from the analysis of recent faults and from focal mechanisms of earthquakes (An example: The Paphos region,Cyprus)

The authors have made a comparative study of surface deformations deduced from the analysis of recent faults, and deformation in depth deduced from, focal mechanisms associated with shallow earthquakes. The initial results obtained in the Paphos region of Cyprus are presented.Study of striations on centi- to decametric-scale fracture surfaces which affect Plio-Quaternary beaches in the Paphos region has enabled the authors to determine statistically the position of the principal axes of Plio-Quaternary deformation: lengthening X (strike N32°, dip 12°NE), shortening Z (N297°, 23°NW) and intermediate Y (N138°, 65°SE).On the 10th of September 1953 a superficial earthquake (depth 6 km) of 6.5 magnitude occurred near Paphos (location 34.9°N, 32.2°E) whose focal mechanism has been studied. Fault-plane solutions were obtained using 36 data points relating to the initial movements of the P-waves measured by longand short-period seismographs. Unfortunately the distribution of data with respect to the focus is such that it does not permit a single, but rather three possible solutions. Two of these are compatible with the model of deformation deduced from surface study. While the most probable solution favours a normal fault (solution no. 3), the system of deep strike-slip faults (solution no. 2) is equally compatible with the existence of predominantly normal surface faults.The preliminary results constitute part of a more regional study of the eastern Mediterranean. The authors consider it fundamental to establish this type of correlation when studying neotectonics.     

Statistical occurrence analysis and spatio-temporal distribution of earthquakes in the Apennines (Italy)

We present two examples of statistical analysis of seismicity conducted by integrating geological, geophysical and seismological data with the aim to characterize the active stress field and to define the spatio-temporal distribution of large earthquakes. Moreover, our data will help to improve the knowledge of the “seismogenic behavior” of the areas and to provide useful information for seismic hazard evaluation.The earthquakes are described by two non-parametric statistical procedures integrating also tectonic-physical parameters to study the spatio-temporal variability.The results show that the areas are characterized by: 1) a stress regime with mainly extensional kinematics; 2) tectonic structures mainly oriented with the active stress field (S_hmin = N44° ± 18° in the southern Apennines and S_hmin = N50° ± 17° in the central Apennines); 3) cluster distribution of seismicity and 4) a high probability of earthquake occurrence (M > 5.5) in the next 10 years.     

Jabuka island (Central Adriatic Sea) earthquakes of 2003

We present analyses of one of the strongest earthquake sequences ever recorded within the Adriatic microplate, which occurred near the Jabuka island in the very centre of the Adriatic Sea. The mainshock (29 March 2003, 17:42, M_L=5.5) was preceded by over 150 foreshocks, and followed by many aftershocks, over 4600 of which were recorded on the closest station HVAR (about 90 km to the east). As the epicentre was in the open sea and due to the absence of nearby stations, we were able to confidently locate only 597 events. Hypocentral locations were computed by a grid-search algorithm after seven iterations of refining hypocentres and adjusting station corrections. Epicentres lie in a well-defined area of about 300 km², just to the W and NW of the Jabuka island. The vertical cross-sections reveal that hypocentres dip to the NE, closely matching faults from the Jabuka-Andrija fault system, as identified on the available reflection profiles in the area. The fault-plane solution of the main shock based on the first-motion polarity readings agrees well with the CMT solutions and indicates faulting caused by a S–N directed tectonic pressure, on a reverse, dip-slip fault. This is in very good agreement with the seismotectonic framework of the area. These earthquakes are important as they identify the Jabuka-Andrija fault system as an active one, which can significantly influence seismic hazard on the islands in the central Adriatic archipelago and on the Croatian coast between Zadar and Split. Along with several other sequences which occurred in the last two decades, they force us to change our notion of Adria as nearly aseismic, compact and rigid block. In fact, it turns out that recent seismicity of the Central Adriatic Sea is comparable to the seismicity of several well known earthquake-prone areas in the circum-Adriatic region.     

The stress field near the sites of the Meckering (1968) and Calingiri (1970) earthquakes, Western Australia

A comparison of three methods of stress determination using overcoring tests, earthquake focal-mechanism solutions, and fault-displacement analysis, was carried out near the epicentres of the 1968 Meckering and the 1970 Calingiri earthquakes, Western Australia. Shallow overcoring measurements (3–10 m) were made at seven sites in competent granite, along a 200-km north—south traverse through the location of the Meckering earthquake. The in situ measurements indicate a high regional compressive stress, acting about N77°E. This compares with the direction of the P-axes from the Meckering and Calingiri earthquakes of N91°E and N102°E, respectively, and east-west orientation of major principal stress deduced from observations of surface faulting. The highest maximum principal stress, 23 MPa, was measured at the site farthest north from the Meckering epicentre (~ 90 km), and the lowest, 4 MPa, was measured near the epicentre. The magnitude of the stress increases with distance away from the epicentral area at about 0.2 kPa/m. The results were corrected for drilling water temperature, thermal rock stresses, and suction pore pressure. The total correction was less than 2 MPa at most sites.Estimates of shear stress release from the fault-scarp displacements for Meckering and Calingiri were of similar magnitude (~10 MPa) to the difference between observed shear stress at sites close to and sites remote from the Meckering earthquake.As a cause of the earthquake it is proposed that the fault plane is progressively weakened by alteration or weathering, and that a small long-term fluctuation of head of ground water was the trigger.The high stress at shallow depths, the growing evidence of east—west major principal stress in most of the Australian continent, and the existence of horizontal stress higher than gravity lithostatic stress may have a common explanation, in terms of the driving forces of plate tectonics. The Australian results do not agree with the north—south orientation suggested by crude plate-drift theories in which the major stress is in the direction of the drift, and do not appear to fit with orientations from other continents, in the Richardson et al. (1976) interacting plate model which assumes a velocity-dependent plate driving force. An analysis of driving forces at diverging plate boundaries was carried out and suggests no dominant force-velocity relationship, thus forces independent of plate velocity may control the stress orientation in the plate.     

Focal mechanisms of three earthquakes in Finland and their relation to surface faults

Focal mechanisms for three recent earthquakes in Finland are determined using P-wave polarities together with SV/P and SH/P phase amplitude ratios. The events occurred on May 11, 2000 in Toivakka, Central Finland (M_L=2.4), on September 15, 2000 in Kuusamo, northeastern Finland (M_L=3.5), and on May 2, 2001 in Kolari, western Finnish Lapland (M_L=2.9).In order to obtain reliable estimates of the source parameters, one-dimensional crust and upper mantle velocity models are derived for the epicenter areas from deep-seismic sounding results. The starting models are modified by one-dimensional ray tracing using the earthquake observations. The events are relocated by employing P- and S-phase arrival times from the nearest seismic stations and the final velocity models. Synthetic waveforms, calculated with the reflectivity method, are used to further constrain and verify the source and structural parameters.The Toivakka earthquake indicates thrust- or reverse-faulting mechanism at a depth of 5 km. After comparison with aeromagnetic and topographic data we suggest the eastward dipping nodal plane (358°/42°) was the fault plane. The best-fitting fault plane solution of the Kolari earthquake suggests pure thrust-faulting at a depth of 5 km. The nodal plane striking 035°/30° correlates well with surface observations of the postglacial, possibly listric fault systems in the source area. The Kuusamo earthquake (focal depth 14 km) has a normal-faulting mechanism with the nodal planes trending 133°/47° or 284°/47°. Preference is given to the SW-dipping nodal plane, as it seems to coincide with topographic and magnetic lineament directions that have been active after the last ice age.The three earthquakes have occurred in old Precambrian faults and shear zones, which have been reactivated. The reactivated faults are favourably oriented in the local stress field.     

Prehistoric earthquakes and fault scarps in the Barguzin fault zone (Baikal Rift system)

We studied fault scarps produced by prehistoric earthquakes in the Barguzin fault zone and estimated the ages and the magnitudes of the scarp-forming events in each scarp segment from their structure, morphology, and scarp parameters. Morphological and structural data reveal two to four surface-rupturing events with displacement up to 5–9.5 m, and two events showed ¹⁴C ages of 4.5 and 9 kyr. The area of the Barguzin Fault may have experienced six 7.5 ≤ M < 8.0 earthquakes and two M ≥ 8.0 (8.0–8.2) events for the past 10–12 kyr.     

Isotope age measurements for the Zambezi orogenic belt and the Urungwe Klippe,Rhodesia

Details of seven new Rb-Sr and eleven new K-Ar age determinations are given for metamorphic rocks and minerals from a variety of high grade rocks along the E-W trending Zambezi belt and from granites, gneisses and a pelite at the Urungwe Klippe. The new results confirm scattered age data from the literature and show the rocks of the Zambezi belt to have been affected by a circa 500 m. y. tectono-thermal event. Geological and geochronological data indicate that rocks as old as 2840 m. y. belonging to previous orogenic cycles were also involved.Eight minerals from below the Urungwe Klippe give K-Ar apparent ages between 730 m. y. and 1298 m. y. which can be interpreted as the result of the 500 m. y. event incompletely imposed on rocks of Irumide (circa 900 m. y.) and older cycles. A single age (904 m. y.) from within the Klippe indicates the granitic rocks in the thrust mass are no younger than those beneath it to the north.

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Zusammenfassung Sieben neue Rb/Sr- und elf neue K/Ar-Alter wurden aus metamorphen Gesteinen und von Mineralen aus verschiedenen Serien des E-W-streichenden Zambezi-Orogens und dessen Graniten sowie aus Gneisen und Peliten der Urungwe-Klippe bestimmt. Die neuen Ergebnisse bestätigen die weitstreuenden Altersangaben in der Literatur und zeigen, daß die Gesteine des ZambeziOrogens eine tektothermale überprägung vor 500 Millionen Jahren bekommen haben. Geologische und geochronologische Daten deuten darauf hin, daß 2840 Mill. Jahre alte Gesteine aus älteren Orogenen ebenfalls von dieser überprägung betroffen wurden.Acht Minerale aus den Serien unterhalb der Urungwe-Klippe geben K/ArAlter zwischen 730 Mill. und 1298 Mill. Jahre an. Diese Alter können als Mischalter aus einer unvollständigen überprägung von Irumiden-Gesteinen (etwa 900 Mill. Jahre) und älteren Serien während der 500-Mill.-Jahre-Tektogenese angesehen werden. Ein Alter von 904 Mill. Jahren aus Graniten der UrungweKlippe zeigt, daß diese Gesteine nicht jünger sind als die liegenden Serien im Norden davon.

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Résumé Sept nouveaux âges géochronologiques par la méthode Rb-Sr et onze âges par la méthode K-Ar ont été obtenus sur des roches métamorphiques et sur les minéraux de différentes roches à haute teneur de la zone orogénique du Zambèze, qui s'étend dans une direction est-ouest, ainsi que sur quelques granites, gneiss et pelites de l'Urungwe Klippe. Les nouveaux resultats confirment les données qui ont été déjà publiées. Ils montrent aussi que les roches de la zone orogénique du Zambèze furent affectées par un évènement thermo-tectonique, qui eut lieu il y a environ 500 M. A. Les données géologiques et géochronologiques montrent que ces roches (2840 M. A.) appartenant à un cycle orogénique antérieur furent affectées par le mÊme évènement.Les âges K-Ar calculés pour huit minéraux qui proviennent de sous l'Urungwe Klippe oscillent entre 730 et 1298 M. A. Ils peuvent Être considérés comme le résultat d'un évènement qui eut lieu il y a 500 M. A. et qui affectait partiellement les roches des Irumides (ca. 900 M. A.) ainsi que les cycles plus anciens. Un seul âge géochronologique (904 M. A.) obtenu sur une roche de l'interieur de l'Urungwe Klippe indique que les roches granitiques de la masse de poussée ne sont pas plus jeunes que ceux qui sont sous-jacents à cette masse vers le nord.

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Rb/Sr, K/r . , 500 . , , 2840 . — 8 730 1298 , K/r. , ( 900 ) . 904 , . . .

     

Structural analysis of the superficial deformation of the 1969 Pariahuanca earthquakes (Central Peru)

An analysis of the superficial structures related to the Huaytapallana fault is presented. This fault was formed during the Pariahuanca earthquakes of July 24 and October 1, 1969. The fault trends N120E and is 3.5 km long, the displacement is 0.70 m left-lateral slip and 1.6 vertical upthrust. At most places the fault appears as a steep flexure associated with open fractures and mostly gravity folds, all of them almost parallel to it. Oblique, “en échelon” shears, often associated with small folds, are developed in the turf which is partly detached from its substratum. The analysis of these fractures is consistent with a mean N65E shortening direction. The compressional and dilatational quadrants obtained by means of this analysis fit rather well with the focal-mechanism data. On the other hand, some of the en échelon fold and fault systems provide a model of similar features with a magnitude of several kilometers.     

Current states of stress in the northern Andes as indicated by focal mechanisms of earthquakes

Systematic inversion of double couple focal mechanisms of shallow earthquakes in the northern Andes reveals relatively homogeneous patterns of crustal stress in three main regions. The first region, presently under the influence of the Caribbean plate, includes the northern segment of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the western flank of the Central Cordillera (north of 4°N). It is characterized by WNW–ESE compression of dominantly reverse type that deflects to NW–SE in the Merida Andes of Venezuela, where it becomes mainly strike–slip in type. A major bend of the Eastern thrust front of the Eastern Cordillera, near its junction with the Merida Andes, coincides with a local deflection of the stress regime (SW–NE compression), suggesting local accommodation of the thrust belt to a rigid indenter in this area. The second region includes the SW Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador, currently under the influence of the Nazca plate. In this area, approximately E–W compression is mainly reverse in type. It deflects to WSW–ENE in the northern Andes south of 4°N, where it is accommodated by right-lateral displacement of the Romeral fault complex and the Eastern front of the northern Andes. The third, and most complex, region is the area of the triple junction between the South American, Nazca and Caribbean plates. It reveals two major stress regimes, both mainly strike–slip in type. The first regime involves SW–NE compression related to the interaction between the Nazca and Caribbean plates and the Panama micro-plate, typically accommodated in an E–W left-lateral shear zone. The second regime involves NW–SE compression, mainly related to the interaction between the Caribbean plate and the North Andes block which induces left-lateral displacement on the Uramita and Romeral faults north of 4°N.Deep seismicity (about 150–170 km) concentrates in the Bucaramanga nest and Cauca Valley areas. The inversion reveals a rather homogeneous attitude of the minimum stress axis, which dips towards the E. This extension is consistent with the present plunge of the Nazca and Caribbean slabs, suggesting that a broken slab may be torn under gravitational stresses in the Bucaramanga nest. This model is compatible with current blocking of the subduction in the western northern Andes, inhibiting the eastward displacement of slabs, which are forced to break and sink in to the asthenosphere under their own weight.     

Faulting and effects of earthquakes on Minoan archaeological sites in Crete (Greece)

Examination of damages affecting the buildings of the archaeological sites of Phaistos and Agia Triada (southern Crete) suggests that these Minoan settlements were probably destroyed by two major seismic events characterized by MKS intensities of IX–X and occurred at the end of the Protopalatial (1700 BC) and the Neopalatial (1450 BC) periods. Geological and morphological studies carried out in the neighbouring areas show the occurrence of E–W trending Quaternary normal fault segments (Spili and Agia Galini faults) that control the present topography and morphology, and exhibit steep young scarps mostly Holocene in age. These fault segments are related to a NW–SE extension direction, which is consistent with that indicated by the available focal mechanisms of the earthquakes occurring in this area in the last 50 years. Combining structural and seismic data we can infer that the Spili and Agia Galini fault segments could represent good candidates to be considered active faults generating large earthquakes (M6.5) that were responsible for the damages of Phaistos and Agia Triada. This hypothesis suggests that the Minoan palatial centres were destroyed by several large earthquakes related to ruptures along distinct fault segments rather than by a single catastrophic event that caused the abrupt destruction of the Minoan civilisation in the eastern Mediterranean.     

Source parameters and focal mechanisms of local earthquakes: Single broadband observatory at ISM Dhanbad

A three-component broadband seismograph is in operation since January 2007 at the Indian School of Mines (ISM) campus. We have used the broadband seismograms of two local earthquakes M <3 recorded by this single station to illustrate its efficacy in understanding the source processes and tectonics in Dhanbad area. Source parameters and fault plane solutions are obtained through waveform inversion. It is observed that these two earthquakes occurred in the lower crust at a depth of 26 km by strike slip faulting. North-south compressional and east-west tensional stresses are dominant in the area, and the lower crust is the source area for the local earthquakes.     

The seismicity of Kohistan, Pakistan: Source studies of the Hamran (1972.9.3), Darel (1981.9.12) and Patan (1974.12.28) earthquakes

Long period body waves are examined to show that the Hamran (1972.9.3), Darel (1981.9.12) and Patan (1974.12.28) earthquakes in Kohistan had focal depths of about 8–10 km. All involved high angle reverse faulting (thrusting) and had seismic moments of about 2.2 to 2.7·10²⁵ dyne cm. These shallow depths contrast with the deeper hypocentres found in the Hindu Kush and northeast Karakoram to the north and in Hazara to the south. The Hamran and Patan shocks were assigned depths of 45 km by the ISC, indicating that even well-recorded events in this region may have focal depths in error by 30 km     

Landslides triggered by multiple earthquakes: insights from the 2018 Lombok (Indonesia) events

Natural Hazards - Earthquake-triggered landslides significantly contribute to worsening the impact of seismic events; thus, comprehensive landslide inventories are essential for improving seismic...