Mapping bathymetry using X-band marine radar data recorded from a moving vessel

Marine radars mounted on ships can provide remarkable insights into ocean behaviour from distances of several kilometres, placing other in situ observations and the environment around a ship into a wider oceanographic context. It has been known for some time that it is possible to map shallow water bathymetry and currents using radar image sequences recorded from shore based stations. However, a long standing question from military and hydrographic communities has been whether such techniques can be applied to radar data collected by moving vessels. If so, this presents the possibility of mapping large areas of shallow or coastal seas (albeit with a somewhat coarse horizontal resolution of 50–100 m) prior to the surveying vessel actually having to travel into potentially uncharted or dangerous shallow water areas. Trial sets of radar data were recorded by the Canadian Forces Auxiliary Vessel Quest using a Wamos radar digitiser connected to a Decca navigation radar during a number of deployments around Nova Scotia in 2008 and 2009. Georeferencing corrections derived from the existing ship navigation systems were sufficient to allow the application of the existing depth inversion analysis designed for static radar installations. This paper presents the results of bathymetry analyses of two datasets recorded from CFAV Quest while the vessel was travelling at speeds of up to 14 knots. The bathymetry derived from the radar data compare favourably with independent surveys and with the on-board echo sounder to depths of approximately 50 m.     

Ability of a dual polarized X-band radar to estimate rainfall

The aim of this study is to assess rainfall estimates by a dual polarized X-band radar. This study was part of the European project FRAMEA (Flood forecasting using Radar in Alpine and Mediterranean Areas). Two radars were set up near the small town of Collobrières in South Eastern France. The first radar was a dual polarized X-band radar (Hydrix^®) associated with a ZPHI^® algorithm while the second one was an S-band radar (Météo France). We compared radar rainfall data with measurements obtained by two rain gauge networks (Météo France and Cemagref). During the experiments from February 2006 to June 2007, four significant rainfall events occurred. The accuracy of the rain rate obtained with both S-band and X-band radars decreased significantly beyond 60 km, in particular for the X-band radar. At closer ranges, such as 30–60 km from the radars, the X-band and the S-band radar retrievals showed similar performance with Nash criteria around 0.80 for the X-band radar and 0.75 for the S-band radar. Furthermore, the X-band radar did not require calibration on rainfall records, which tends to make it a useful method to assess rainfall in areas without a rain gauge network.     

On wave radar measurement

The SAAB REX WaveRadar sensor is widely used for platform-based wave measurement systems by the offshore oil and gas industry. It offers in situ surface elevation wave measurements at relatively low operational costs. Furthermore, there is adequate flexibility in sampling rates, allowing in principle sampling frequencies from 1 to 10 Hz, but with an angular microwave beam width of 10° and an implied ocean surface footprint in the order of metres, significant limitations on the spatial and temporal resolution might be expected. Indeed there are reports that the accuracy of the measurements from wave radars may not be as good as expected. We review the functionality of a WaveRadar using numerical simulations to better understand how WaveRadar estimates compare with known surface elevations. In addition, we review recent field measurements made with a WaveRadar set at the maximum sampling frequency, in the light of the expected functionality and the numerical simulations, and we include inter-comparisons between SAAB radars and buoy measurements for locations in the North Sea.     

Directional wave spectra at the regional scale with the KuROS airborne radar: comparisons with models

Ocean Dynamics - In situ observations, satellite observations, and regional observations from airborne remote sensing are very useful to characterize sea state evolution and related physical...     

雷达波偏移方法研究

为了解决由于点状体的绕射和倾斜界面造成的失真现象,本文从探地雷达偏移处理的基本原理出发,分别介绍了以射线理论为基础的绕射扫描偏移和以波动方程为出发点的克希霍夫积分偏移、有限差分偏移以及有限元偏移．随着计算机的高速发展,运算速度得到了明显提高,目前,以波动方程为基础的偏移方法逐渐占据了主导地位,由于它的高精度等很多优点受到了人们的欢迎．总结了各种偏移方法的优缺点和适用范围,为探地雷达进一步的偏移研究奠定了理论基础．     

Ocean wave imaging mechanism by imaging radar

Analytical representations of the high frequency spectra of ocean wave and its variation due to the variation of ocean surface current are derived from the wave-number spectrum balance equation. The ocean surface imaging formulation of real aperture radar (RAR) is given using electromagnetic wave backscattering theory of ocean surface and the modulations of ocean surface winds, currents and their variations to RAR are described. A general representation of the phase modulation induced by the ocean surface motion is derived according to standard synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging theory. The detectability of ocean current and sea bottom topography by imaging radar is discussed. The results constitute the theoretical basis for detecting ocean wave fields, ocean surface winds, ocean surface current fields, sea bottom topography, internal wave and so on.     

Ocean wave parameters and spectrum estimated from single and dual high-frequency radar systems

The high-frequency (HF) radar inversion algorithm for spectrum estimation (HIAS) can estimate ocean wave directional spectra from both dual and single radar. Wave data from a dual radar and two single radars are compared with in situ observations. The agreement of the wave parameters estimated from the dual radar with those from in situ observations is the best of the three. In contrast, the agreement of the wave parameters estimated from the single radar in which no Doppler spectra are observed in the cell closest to the in situ observation point is the worst among the three. Wave data from the dual radar and the two single radars are compared. The comparison of the wave heights estimated from the single and dual radars shows that the area sampled by the Doppler spectra for the single radar is more critical than the number of Doppler spectra in terms of agreement with the dual-radar-estimated wave heights. In contrast, the comparison of the wave periods demonstrates that the number of Doppler spectra observed by the single radar is more critical for agreement of the wave periods than the area of the Doppler spectra. There is a bias directed to the radar position in the single radar estimated wave direction.     

基于正则化方法的高频地波雷达海浪方向谱反演

提出了一种从高频地波雷达海面回波谱中提取海浪方向谱的新方法:基于高频电波海洋探测基本原理将线性化后的非线性积分方程离散为矩阵方程组,通过引入正则化数学模型将不适定方程转化为正规方程,然后采用奇异值分解法求解.对于正则化方法中正则化参数,采用L曲线法来确定.为了验证本文算法的有效性,分别在单部雷达和双部雷达探测下进行了不同噪声水平下的数值模拟,结果表明了该正则化反演方法的有效性.文中还给出了实测数据分析初步结果.该算法的工程性应用还需进一步研究.对于实际的地波雷达海浪反演具有良好的应用前景.     

Studying the fine structure of coherent echo spectra using data from Irkutsk incoherent scatter radar

Studying the processes generating different-scale inhomogeneities is one of the challenging problems of ionospheric physics. Plasma instabilities are one of the physical mechanisms by which small-scale inhomogeneities are formed. The main forms of instability in the ionospheric E-layer are two-stream and gradient-drift ones. The inhomogeneities generated by them lead to an abnormally intense radio scattering of different wavelengths (known as coherent echo (CE) or radio aurora) in the E-layer. Therefore, the method of radiowave backscattering is among the widely used methods for studying such inhomogeneities. The CE phenomenon has been investigated most intensely at high and equatorial latitudes, where the conditions for the CE origination are formed rather regularly. For the last decade, CE has also been intensely studied at midlatitudes, where it is observed less frequently and its formation conditions are less known. In 1998–2006, the purposeful studies of the midlatitude CE peculiarities were performed at the Irkutsk incoherent scatter (IS) radar, with a particular emphasis on its coherent properties. It was for the first time found out that the spectra of some data sets had a fine comb-shaped structure, which generated well-known single-humped CE spectra as a result of statistical averaging. In the scope of this study, unique coherent methods for processing individual data sets of CE signals were developed, making it possible to reveal the peculiarities of unaveraged CE-signal spectra. To describe these peculiarities, we proposed a new model of the inhomogeneity spectrum, which is the superposition of the discrete set of spatial harmonics with close wave numbers. The model was shown to adequately describe the scattered signal characteristics observed experimentally.     

A detailed comparison of theoretical wave spectra and wave forecasting methods

Summary Theoretical wave spectra derived by J. Darbyshire and G. Neumann, and a modification of Neumann's results by H. U. Roll and G. Fischer are compared with a carefully computed observed spectrum and with average period, significant height, and slope observations. Observations of waves for one of the two most intense storms in the North Pacific for a 35 year period are compared with forecasts made by the Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider wave forecasting method, the Pierson-Neumann-James-method, and the Darbyshire method.It is shown that the Neumann spectrum agrees best with the observed spectrum. It correctly predicts the significant height, and it is consistent with average period considerations, with sea surface slope considerations, and with the properties that the sea should have when photographed. Moreover, for wave observations for one of the most intense storms in the North Pacific the Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider and Pierson-Neumann-James-method agree within a few feet for the significant height. The Darbyshire method is too low by more than 12 feet although the sea was not fully developed, and it would have forecast a fully developed sea.The Roll-Fischer modification leads to discrepancies with the observable characteristics of the composite wave pattern which cannot be resolved by changing the constant of the spectral function in order to adjust the total wave energy to suit the wave height characteristics.Résumé Des spectres théorétiques des vagues derivées par J. Darbyshire et G. Neumann ainsi qu'une modification par Roll-Fischer des spectres proposés par G. Neumann sont comparés à un spectre soigneusement calculé à partir des enregistrements des vagues. Les valeurs de la période moyenne apparente, de la hauteur significative des vagues et de l'angle d'inclinaison des vagues, à dériver des spectres théorétiques, permettent de les mettre en parallèle avec des observations. De plus, on confronte des observations des vagues, prises des enregistrements d'une des deux tempêtes les plus fortes qui se sont produites pendant les dernières 35 années en océan Pacifique Nord, avec les résultats obtenus grâce aux méthodes de prévision des vagues de Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider, de Pierson-Neumann-James et de Darbyshire.Il se montra que le spectre d'après Neumann se rapproche le plus du spectre observé. Ses résultats correspondent aux observations de l'énergie totale de la mer agitée, aux considérations de la période moyenne, à l'angle d'inclinaison des vagues et aux propriétés statistiques de la surface de la mer agitée, comme elles se laissent dériver des photographies stéréophotogrammétriques. Des observations des vagues, provenant d'une des tempêtes les plus fortes en océan Pacifique Nord, correspondent également à quelques pieds près aux prévisions effectuées d'après les méthodes de Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider et de Pierson-Neumann-James. Au contraire, l'application de la méthode de Darbyshire donne des hauteurs trop faibles de 12 pieds bien que cette méthode eût prédit l'entrée d'un développement complet de l'agitation de la mer en vue des conditions données par la tempête. En réalité, la mer n'atteignit pas l'état d'une agitation complètement développée et le résultat de la prévision d'après la méthode de Darbyshire eut différé encore plus fort de l'agitation réelle complètement développée de la mer, vu la grande force des vents.La modification d'après Roll-Fischer entraîne des contradictions par rapport à certaines caractéristiques de l'agitation complexe de la mer, accessibles à l'observation. Une modification de la constante de la fonction spectrale ne peut pas faire disparaître ces contradictions lors même que l'on essayerait à adapter à la caractéristique des hauteurs des vagues l'énergie totale de l'agitation de la mer.Résultats des prévisions de l'agitation de la mer. — On compare différentes méthodes en tant qu'elles se basent sur des spectres des vagues et on trouve que la méthode proposée en 1955 par Pierson-Neumann-James semble s'accorder le mieux avec les conditions observées. Cela se vérifie particulièrement lorsqu'on considère un grand nombre de situations météorologiques et des conditions de la mer agitée, offrant le plus de différences et d'extrêmes possibles.

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Ausführliche Gegenüberstellung von theoretischen Wellenspektren und Methoden für die Seegangsvorhersage

Zusammenfassung Theoretische Wellenspektren nach Darbyshire und Neumann sowie nach der von Roll-Fischer vorgeschlagenen Änderung der Neumann-Spektren werden mit einem aus Seegangsregistrierungen sorgfältig berechneten Spektrum verglichen. Die aus den theoretischen Spektren abzuleitenden Werte für die mittlere scheinbare Periode, die kennzeichnende Wellenhöhe und die Neigungswinkel der wellenbewegten Meeresoberfläche lassen einen Vergleich mit den Beobachtungen zu. Außerdem werden Wellenbeobachtungen von einem der beiden stärksten Stürme innerhalb der letzten 35 Jahre im Nordpazifik den Resultaten der Seegangsvorhersage-Methoden nach Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider, Pierson-Neumann-James und Darbyshire gegenübergestellt.Es zeigt sich, daß das Neumann-Spektrum dem beobachteten Spektrum am nächsten kommt. Es stimmt überein mit der beobachteten Gesamtenergie des Seeganges, mit Betrachtungen über die mittlere Periode, die Neigungswinkel der Wellen und den statistischen Eigenschaften der wellenbewegten Meeresoberfläche, die man z.B. aus stereophotogrammetrischen Aufnahmen ableiten kann. Auch die Wellenbeobachtungen in einem der stärksten Stürme im Nordpazifik stimmen bis auf wenige Fuß mit den Vorausberechnungen nach den Methoden von Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider und Pierson-Neumann-James überein. Dagegen fallen die Höhen nach der Darbyshire-Methode um mehr als 12 Fuß zu niedrig aus, obwohl diese Methode den Seegang unter den im Sturm herrschenden Bedingungen als voll ausgereift angibt. Tatsächlich war der Seegang aber nicht voll entwickelt, und der Unterschied gegen die Darbyshire-Methode würde für voll ausgereifte See bei den hohen Windstärken noch größer sein.Die Roll-Fischer-Modifikation des Neumann-Spektrums führt zu Widersprüchen mit gewissen Eigenschaften des komplexen Seeganges, die der Beobachtung zugänglich sind. Diese Widersprüche lassen sich auch dann nicht durch Änderung der Konstanten der Spektralfunktion beseitigen, wenn man die Gesamtenergie das Seeganges der Wellenhöhencharakteristik anzupassen versucht.Ergebnisse der Seegangsvorhersage. — Methoden, soweit sie auf Wellenspektren gegründet sind, werden miteinander verglichen. Die von den Verfassern 1955 vorgeschlagene Methode scheint den beobachteten Verhältnissen am nächsten zu kommen. Dies zeigt sich besonders, wenn möglichst verschiedene und extreme Wetterlagen und Seegangsverhältnisse betrachtet werden.

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Comparaison détaillée des spectres théorétiques des vagues et des méthodes de prévision des vagues

     

A detailed comparison of theoretical wave spectra and wave forecasting methods

Conclusion The status of various results on the determination of the appropriate family of theoretical wave spectra to describe wind generated seas and the status of various wave forecasting methods have been reviewed. The spectra of Neumann appear to describe the sea more accurately than other theoretical spectra and the wave forecasting methods of Pierson, Neumann and James appear to be the most nearly correct for the widest variety of possible wave and weather situations.     

Interpretations and observations of ocean wave spectra

The paper starts with a discussion of the linear stochastic theory of ocean waves and its various nonlinear extensions. The directional spectrum, with its unique dispersion relation connecting frequency (ω) and wavenumber (k), is no longer valid for nonlinear waves, and examples of $\left( \mathbf{k},\omega\right) The paper starts with a discussion of the linear stochastic theory of ocean waves and its various nonlinear extensions. The directional spectrum, with its unique dispersion relation connecting frequency (ω) and wavenumber (k), is no longer valid for nonlinear waves, and examples of ( k,w)\left( \mathbf{k},\omega\right) -spectra based on analytical expressions and computer simulations of nonlinear waves are presented. Simulations of the dynamic nonlinear evolution of unidirectional free waves using the nonlinear Schr?dinger equation and its generalizations show that components above the spectral peak have larger phase and group velocities than anticipated by linear theory. Moreover, the spectrum does not maintain a thin well-defined dispersion surface, but rather develops into a continuous distribution in ( k,w)\left( \mathbf{k,}\omega\right) -space. The majority of existing measurement systems rely on linear theory for the interpretation of their data, and no measurement systems are currently able to measure the full spectrum in the open ocean with high accuracy. Nevertheless, there exist a few low-resolution systems where data may be interpreted within a minimal assumption of a non-restricted ( k,w)\left( \mathbf{k,}\omega\right) -spectrum. The theory is reviewed, and analyses based on conventional spectral analysis as well as a directional wavelet analysis are carried out on data from a compact laser array at the Ekofisk field in the North Sea. The investigation confirms the strong impact of the second order spectrum below the spectral peak, but is non-conclusive about the off-set in the support of the first order spectrum seen in the dynamical simulations.     

Mountain wave motions determined by the Esrange MST radar

A European campaign of ground-based radar, lidar and optical measurements was carried out during the winter of 1996/1997 (28 December–2 February) to study lee waves in the northern part of Scandinavia. The participants operated ozone lidars, backscatter lidars and MST radars at ALOMAR/Andoya and Esrange/Kiruna, and an ALIS imaging system in Kiruna. The Andoya site was generally windward of the Scandinavian mountains, the Kiruna site on the leeward side. The goal of the experiment was to examine the influence of lee waves on the formation of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs). This paper studies the radar data from MST-radar ESRAD located at Esrange [68.°N, 21.°E], i.e. in the lee of the mountains. We present three cases where strong lee waves were observed: in one case they propagated upwards to the lower stratosphere and in the other two cases they were trapped or absorbed in the troposphere. We examine the local waves and the direction and strength of the local wind using the radar, the synoptic meteorological situation using weather maps (European Meteorological Bulletin) and the synoptic stratospheric temperatures using ECMWF data. We observed that waves propagate up to the stratosphere during frontal passages. When anticyclonic ridges are present, the propagation to the stratosphere is very weak. This is due to trapping of the waves at or below the tropopause. We also show that the radar data alone can be used to characterise the different weather conditions for the three cases studied (through the variation of the height of the tropopause). The synoptic stratospheric temperatures in the three cases were similar, and were above the expected threshold for PSC formation. Lidar and visual observation of PSCs and nacreous clouds, respectively, showed that these were present only in the case when the lee waves propagated up to the lower stratosphere.     

Rainfall spatial variability observed by X-band weather radar and its implication for the accuracy of rainfall estimates

The main objective of this paper is to estimate the error in the rainfall derived from a polarimetric X-band radar, by comparison with the corresponding estimate of a rain gauge network. However the present analysis also considers the errors inherent to rain gauge, in particular instrumental and representativeness errors. A special emphasis is addressed to the spatial variability of the rainfall in order to appreciate the representativeness error of the rain gauge with respect to the 1 km square average, typical of the radar derived estimate. For this purpose the spatial correlation function of the rainfall is analyzed.     

虚拟波动域三维海洋可控源电磁场正演模拟

本文基于对应原理将似稳态条件下频率域电磁场扩散方程转换成虚拟波动域电磁场波动方程,采用高阶时域有限差分进行求解,引入复频移完全匹配层吸收边界条件,降低了内存需求,提高了计算效率,并在虚拟波动域用伪δ函数离散电偶极源,实现了虚拟波动域任意取向电偶极源三维海洋可控源电磁场高阶时域有限差分正演算法.通过与拟解析解和频率域三维可控源电磁场数值模拟结果的对比,验证了本文算法的正确性和高效性,且探讨了网格参数和边界条件对不同频率电磁场模拟结果的影响.

     

Multi-hydro hydrological modelling of a complex peri-urban catchment with storage basins comparing C-band and X-band radar rainfall data

ABSTRACT

The spread of impervious surfaces in urban areas combined with the rise in the intensity of rainfall events as a result of climate change has led to dangerous increases in storm water flows. This paper discusses a new implementation of the fully distributed hydrological model Multi-Hydro (developed at École des Ponts ParisTech), when operating storage basins, and its ability to deal with high-resolution radar rainfall data. The peri-urban area of Massy (south of Paris, France) was selected as a case study for having six of these drainage facilities, used extensively in flood control. Two radar rainfall datasets with different spatiotemporal resolutions were used: Météo-France’s PANTHER rainfall product (C-band) and ENPC’s X-band DPSRI. The rainfall spatiotemporal variability was analysed statistically using Universal Multifractals (UM). Finally, to validate the application, the water level simulations were compared with local measurements in the Cora storage basin located next to the catchment’s single outlet.     

南海东北部海洋内波的反射地震研究

已有的内波研究多来自单点的垂直剖面观测资料,但研究内波水平特征的实测资料却非常缺乏．利用反射地震方法研究海水温盐结构,具有高水平分辨率和短时间内对整个海水垂直剖面进行成像的优势,能够弥补传统物理海洋学观测方法的缺陷,为研究海洋内波提供有前景的新手段．本文通过对南海东北部地震剖面的重新处理、分析,认为地震叠加剖面上同相轴呈现的起伏变化反映了内波的总体形态．计算的水平波数能量密度谱与GM76模型谱基本一致,但在低波数段和高波数段中,两者的振幅及斜率存在着一定差异,经分析认为这种差异主要与内潮波和复杂海底地形的强烈非线性相互作用以及内波破碎等因素有关