A Re-examination of Density Effects in Eddy Covariance Measurements of CO_2 Fluxes

Corrections of density effects resulting from air-parcel expansion/compression are important in interpreting eddy covariance fluxes of water vapor and CO2 when open-path systems are used. To account for these effects, mean vertical velocity and perturbation of the density of dry air are two critical parameters in treating those physical processes responsible for density variations. Based on various underlying assumptions, different studies have obtained different formulas for the mean vertical velocity and ...     

An Alternative Approach for CO2 Flux Correction Caused by Heat and Water Vapour Transfer

Energy and CO₂ fluxes are commonly measured above plant canopies using an eddy covariance system that consists of a three-dimensional sonic anemometer and an H₂O/CO₂ infrared gas analyzer. By assuming that the dry air is conserved and inducing mean vertical velocity, Webb et al. (Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 106, 85-100, 1980) obtained two equations to account for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer on H₂O/CO₂ fluxes. In this paper, directly starting with physical consideration of air-parcel expansion/compression, we derive two alternative equations to correct for these effects that do not require the assumption that dry air is conserved and the use of the mean vertical velocity. We then applied these equations to eddy flux observations from a black spruce forest in interior Alaska during the summer of 2002. In this ecosystem, the equations developed here led to increased estimates of CO₂ uptake by the vegetation during the day (up to about 20%), and decreased estimates of CO₂ respiration by the ecosystem during the night (approximately 4%) as compared with estimates obtained using the Webb et al. approach.     

On the relationship between the eddy covariance,the turbulent flux,and surface exchange for a trace gas such as CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>

In the context of CO₂ surface exchange estimation, an analysis combining the basic principles of diffusion and scalar conservation shows that the mixing ratio is the appropriate variable both for defining the (eddy covariance) turbulent flux and also for expressing the relationship between the turbulent flux and surface exchange in boundary-layer budget equations. Other scalar intensity variables sometimes chosen, both the CO₂ density and molar fraction, are susceptible to the influence of surface exchange of heat and water vapour. The application of a hypsometric analysis to the boundary-layer “control volume” below the tower measurement height reveals flaws in previously applied approaches: (a) incompressibility cannot be assumed to simplify mass conservation (the budget in terms of CO₂ density); (b) compressibility alone makes the analysis of mass conservation vulnerable to uncertainties associated with resultant non-zero vertical velocities too small to measure or model over real terrain; and (c) the WPL (Webb et al. (1980) Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 106:85–100) “zero dry air flux” assumption is invalidated except at the surface boundary. Nevertheless, the definition and removal of the WPL terms do not hinge upon this last assumption, and so the turbulent CO₂ flux can be accurately determined by eddy covariance using gas analysers of either open- or closed-path design. An appendix discusses the necessary assumptions and appropriate interpretations for deriving the WPL terms.     

The correct form of the Webb,Pearman and Leuning equation for eddy fluxes of trace gases in steady and non-steady state,horizontally homogeneous flows

The original density corrections proposed by Webb et al. [Webb EK, Pearman GI, Leuning R (1980) Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 106:85–100] for calculating the eddy fluxes of trace gases are shown to be correct for both steady and non-steady state, horizontally homogeneous flows. The revised theory replaces the original assumption of zero vertical flux of dry air with the requirement of no sources or sinks of dry air in the layer below the height of measurement.     

An Analysis and Implications of Alternative Methods of Deriving the Density (WPL) Terms for Eddy Covariance Flux Measurements

We explore some of the underlying assumptions used to derive the density or WPL terms (Webb et al. (1980) Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 106:85–100) required for estimating the surface exchange fluxes by eddy covariance. As part of this effort we recast the origin of the density terms as an assumption regarding the density fluctuations rather than as a (dry air) flux assumption. This new approach, which is similar to the expansion/compression approach of Liu (Boundary-Layer Meteorol 115:151–168, 2005), eliminates the dry-air mean advective vertical velocity from the development of the WPL terms and allows us to directly compare Liu’s assumptions for deriving the WPL terms with the analogous assumptions appropriate to the original expression of the WPL terms. We suggest, (i) that the main difference between these two approaches lies in the interpretation of the turbulent exchange flux, and (ii) that the original WPL formulation is the more appropriate approach. Given the importance of the WPL terms to accurate and reliable measurements of surface exchange fluxes, a careful analysis of their origins and their proper mathematical expression and interpretation is warranted.     

A Perspective on Thirty Years of the Webb,Pearman and Leuning Density Corrections

The density correction theory of Webb et al. (1980, Q J Roy Meteorol Soc 106: 85–100, hereafter WPL) is a principle underpinning the experimental investigation of surface fluxes of energy and masses in the atmospheric boundary layer. It has a long-lasting influence in boundary-layer meteorology and micrometeorology, and the year 2010 marks the 30th anniversary of the publication of the WPL theory. We provide here a critique of the theory and review the research it has spurred over the last 30 years. In the authors’ opinion, the assumption of zero air source at the surface is a fundamental novelty that gives the WPL theory its enduring vitality. Considerations of mass conservation show that, in a non-steady state, the WPL mean vertical velocity and the thermal expansion velocity are two distinctly different quantities of the flow. Furthermore, the integrated flux will suffer a systematic bias if the expansion velocity is omitted or if the storage term is computed from time changes in the CO₂ density. A discussion is provided on recent efforts to address several important practical issues omitted by the original theory, including pressure correction, unintentional alternation of the sampled air, and error propagation. These refinement efforts are motivated by the need for an unbiased assessment of the annual carbon budget in terrestrial ecosystems in the global eddy flux network (FluxNet).     

中国西天山季节性积雪热力特征分析

利用中国天山积雪雪崩站干、湿雪雪层内每隔5min一次的10层雪温数据,探讨了一次降雪过程后干、湿雪的雪层温度特征,对比分析了干、湿雪的雪面能量平衡方程中各分量的差异。结果表明:(1)整个冬半年积雪各层温度基本<0℃,雪温日变化振幅由雪面向下逐渐减小,积雪深层温度的波峰(谷)值稍滞后于积雪浅层温度极值1～2天。(2)湿雪冷中心的出现时间早于干雪,暖中心的出现时间晚于干雪,太阳辐射对湿雪的穿透深度大于干雪。(3)雪层温度振幅变化与能量吸收随雪深都呈指数衰减分布。积雪密度越大,吸收系数越小,穿透深度越大。(4)干雪雪面的感热通量和潜热通量几乎都为负值,积雪积累。湿雪雪面的潜热通量与感热通量方向相反,互相抵消,所以净辐射是导致湿雪消融的主要因素。     

A model for sensible heat flux probability density function for near-neutral and slightly-stable atmospheric flows

The probability density function for sensible heat flux was measured above a uniform dry lakebed (Owens lake) in Owens Valley, California. It was found that for moderately stable to near neutral atmospheric stability conditions, the probability density function exhibits well defined exponential tails. These exponential tails are consistent with many laboratory boundarylayer measurements and numerical simulations. A model for the sensible heat flux probability density function was developed and tested. A key assumption in the model derivation was the near Gaussian statistics of the vertical velocity and temperature fluctuations. This assumption was verified from time series measurements of temperature and vertical velocity. The parameters for the sensible heat flux probability density function model were also derived from mean meteorological and surface conditions using surface-layer similarity theory. It was found that the best agreement between modeled and measured sensible heat flux probability density function was at the tails. Finally, a relation between the intermittency parameter, the probability density function, and the mean meteorological conditions was derived. This relation rigorously links the intermittency parameter to mean meteorological conditions.     

Correction Of Eddy-Covariance Measurements Incorporating Both Advective Effects And Density Fluxes

Equations are presented to correct eddy-covariancemeasurements for both fluctuations in density andnon-zero mean advection, induced by convergence ordivergence of flow, and spatial source/sinkinhomogeneity, under steady-state and transientconditions. This correction collapses to theWebb–Pearman–Leuning expression ifthe mean vertical velocity is zero, and formally addsthe Webb–Pearman–Leuning expression to the correctionssuggested by Lee for conditions ofnon-zero vertical velocity and source/sink and meanscalar horizontal homogeneity. The equation requiresmeasurement of the mean vertical gradients of thescalar concentration of interest (air temperature,humidity, CO₂) as well as an accurateestimation of the mean vertical velocity, in additionto the vertical eddy covariance of the scalar. Simplemethods for the approximation of sensor tilt andcomplex terrain flow angle are presented, to allowestimation of non-zero mean vertical velocities. Theequations are applied to data from a maize crop and aforest to give examples of when the correction issignificant. In addition, a term for thethermodynamic expansion energy associated with watervapour flux is derived, which implies that the sonictemperature derived sensible heat flux will accuratelyinclude this contribution.     

The air density correction to eddy flux measurements

Under the usual assumptions for the atmospheric surface layer, we show that air density fluctuations, particularly those due to temperature fluctuations associated with a heat flux, result in a small mean vertical wind velocity. Because of this, there can be a significant correction to eddy flux measurements of passive scalars, for example CO₂, whose average concentration is very large compared to concentration fluctuations associated with the eddy flux.     

Numerical Simulation of CO2 Concentrations in East Asia with RAMS-CMAQ

The regional air quality modeling system RAMS-CMAQ(Regional Atmospheric Modeling System and Models-3 Community Multi-scale Air Quality) was developed by incorporating a vegetation photosynthesis and respiration module(VPRM) and used to simulate temporal-spatial variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations in East Asia,with prescribed surface CO2 fluxes(i.e.,fossil fuel emission,biomass burning,sea-air CO2 exchange,and terrestrial biosphere CO2 flux).Comparison of modeled CO2 mixing ratios with eight ground-based in-situ measurements demonstrated that the model was able to capture most observed CO2 temporal-spatial features.Simulated CO2 concentrations were generally in good agreement with observed concentrations.Results indicated that the accumulated impacts of anthropogenic emissions contributed more to increased CO2 concentrations in urban regions relative to remote locations.Moreover,RAMS-CMAQ analysis demonstrates that surface CO2 concentrations in East Asia are strongly influenced by terrestrial ecosystems.     

A Parameterization of Dry Thermals and Shallow Cumuli for Mesoscale Numerical Weather Prediction

For numerical weather prediction models and models resolving deep convection, shallow convective ascents are subgrid processes that are not parameterized by classical local turbulent schemes. The mass flux formulation of convective mixing is now largely accepted as an efficient approach for parameterizing the contribution of larger plumes in convective dry and cloudy boundary layers. We propose a new formulation of the EDMF scheme (for Eddy Diffusivity\Mass Flux) based on a single updraft that improves the representation of dry thermals and shallow convective clouds and conserves a correct representation of stratocumulus in mesoscale models. The definition of entrainment and detrainment in the dry part of the updraft is original, and is specified as proportional to the ratio of buoyancy to vertical velocity. In the cloudy part of the updraft, the classical buoyancy sorting approach is chosen. The main closure of the scheme is based on the mass flux near the surface, which is proportional to the sub-cloud layer convective velocity scale w _*. The link with the prognostic grid-scale cloud content and cloud cover and the projection on the non- conservative variables is processed by the cloud scheme. The validation of this new formulation using large-eddy simulations focused on showing the robustness of the scheme to represent three different boundary layer regimes. For dry convective cases, this parameterization enables a correct representation of the countergradient zone where the mass flux part represents the top entrainment (IHOP case). It can also handle the diurnal cycle of boundary-layer cumulus clouds (EUROCS\ARM) and conserve a realistic evolution of stratocumulus (EUROCS\FIRE).     

Measurement of the Sensible Eddy Heat Flux Based on Spatial Averaging of Continuous Ground-Based Observations

Using the standard eddy-covariance (EC) method to quantify mass and energy exchange at a single location usually results in an underestimation of vertical eddy fluxes at the surface. In order to better understand the reasons for this underestimation, an experimental set-up is presented that is based on spatial averaging of air temperature data from a network of ground-based sensors over agricultural land. For eight days during the 34-day observational period in May and June 2007, additional contributions to the sensible heat flux of more than 50Wm⁻² were measured in the lower surface layer by applying the spatial EC method as opposed to the standard temporal EC method. Smaller but still significant additional sensible heat fluxes were detected for four more days. The additional energy is probably transported in organised convective structures resulting in a mean vertical wind velocity unequal to zero at the tower location. The results show that convective transport contributes significantly to the surface energy budget for measurement heights as low as 2–3 m. Since these structures may be quasi-stationary, they can hardly be captured by a single-location measurement. The spatial EC set-up presented here is capable of quantifying contributions to the sensible heat flux from structures up to the scale of our spatial sensor network, which covered an area 3.5 × 3.5 km. For future experiments aiming at closing the energy balance, the spatial EC method should be employed to measure both the sensible and latent heat fluxes. Experimental determination of the horizontal advection of sensible and latent heat should also be considered, since such transport must occur due to convergence and divergence related to convection.     

Scalar Fluxes from Urban Street Canyons Part II: Model

A practical model is developed for the vertical flux of a scalar, such as heat, from an urban street canyon that accounts for variations of the flow and turbulence with canyon geometry. The model gives the magnitude and geometric dependence of the flux from each facet of the urban street canyon, and is shown to agree well with wind-tunnel measurements described in Part I. The geometric dependence of the flux from an urban street canyon is shown to be determined by two physical processes. Firstly, as the height-to-width ratio of the street canyon increases, so does the roughness length and displacement height of the surface. This increase leads to a reduction in the wind speed in the inertial sublayer above the street canyons. Since the speed of the circulations in the street are proportional to this inertial sublayer wind speed, the flux then reduces with the inertial sublayer wind speed. This process is dominant at low height-to-width ratios. Secondly, the character of the circulations within the street canyon also varies as the height-to-width ratio increases. The flow in the street is partitioned into a recirculation region and a ventilated region. When the street canyon has high height-to-width ratios the recirculation region occupies the whole street canyon and the wind speeds within the street are low. This tendency decreases the flux at high height-to-width ratios. These processes tend to reduce the flux density from the individual facets of the street canyon, when compared to the flux density from a horizontal surface of the same material. But the street canyon has an increased total surface area, which means that the total flux from the street canyon is larger than from a horizontal surface. The variations in scalar flux from an urban street canyon with geometry is over a factor of two, which means that the physical mechanisms responsible should be incorporated into energy balance models for urban areas.     

新疆中天山一次城市暴雪过程诊断分析

采用NCEP逐日4次1°×1°再分析资料和Micaps常规观测等资料,对2011年3月发生在新疆中天山城市暴雪过程进行天气学诊断分析。诊断计算包括：中尺度分析、水汽通量、水汽通量散度、水平散度、垂直速度、高低空风场、螺旋度、假相当位温等。结果表明：暴雪是南北两支锋区在中亚地区交汇后东移发展造成的,降雪前乌鲁木齐城区出现东南大风,地面强烈减压升温为暴雪天气触发不稳定能量提供了热力条件,500 hPa有＞30 m·s^-1的西南急流,700 hPa存在低空切变,散度和垂直速度表现为明显的高层辐散、低层辐合的对称结构。降雪强盛期整层呈现上负下正的垂直螺旋度对,θ_se低能舌伸至200 hPa,700 hPa至400 hPa维持θ_se高能舌区,湿层厚度高达300 hPa。这种物理量场的配置有利低层湿空气聚合及向上的抬升运动,为暴雪的产生提供了必要条件。此次冷空气以偏西路径影响城区,在冷空气明显的条件下,受城市热岛效应影响,强降雪容易发生在温度较高的城区,同时降水中心倾向于出现在锋区的位置。     

Quiescent and synoptically-active drylines: A comparison based upon case studies

Summary ¶A comparison of various aspects of drylines that occur in quiescent and synoptically-active environments is carried out based on review of two observational case studies. Dryline motion in the quiescent case occurs over a relatively short distance compared to that in the synoptically-active case. The latter case includes formation of a synoptic-scale bulge that is diagnosed to be a result of advection of very dry air aloft above the dryline in combination with vertical mixing in the boundary layer. In both cases the dryline at times exhibits discontinuous motion (more pronounced in the synoptically-active case). In each case the total difference (cross-line) in moisture over the region occupied by the dryline is similar, and the change takes place through two or more steps rather than a single step. The along-dryline location of convective initiation is determined by processes in the dry air in both cases. These processes include along-line differences in sensible heating in the dry air leading to variations in the efficiency of vertical mixing of heat, moisture, and momentum. Consequences of these mixing and heating differences include the formation of cloud lines in the dry air and local areas of lowered pressure near the dryline. Sensible heating differences in the dry air are linked to whether precipitation recently occurred over a given region, to the natural character of the underlying surface, and to whether regional-scale irrigation is practiced in cultivated areas.     

Air-Parcel Residence Times Within Forest Canopies

We present a theoretical model, based on a simple model of turbulent diffusion and first-order chemical kinetics, to determine air-parcel residence times and the out-of-canopy export of reactive gases emitted within forest canopies under neutral conditions. Theoretical predictions of the air-parcel residence time are compared to values derived from large-eddy simulation for a range of canopy architectures and turbulence levels under neutral stratification. Median air-parcel residence times range from a few sec in the upper canopy to approximately 30 min near the ground and the distribution of residence times is skewed towards longer times in the lower canopy. While the predicted probability density functions from the theoretical model and large-eddy simulation are in good agreement with each other, the theoretical model requires only information on canopy height and eddy diffusivities inside the canopy. The eddy-diffusivity model developed additionally requires the friction velocity at canopy top and a parametrized profile of the standard deviation of vertical velocity. The theoretical model of air-parcel residence times is extended to include first-order chemical reactions over a range of of Damköhler numbers (Da) characteristic of plant-emitted hydrocarbons. The resulting out-of-canopy export fractions range from near 1 for \(Da =10^{-3}\) to less than 0.3 at \(Da = 10\). These results highlight the necessity for dense and tall forests to include the impacts of air-parcel residence times when calculating the out-of-canopy export fraction for reactive trace gases.     

水汽凝结过程与高低空急流对冷锋环流的作用

文中利用包括水汽凝结过程的湿大气原始方程模式，研究了高空西风急流和低空南风急流中冷锋环流和垂直运动场的演变，计算结果显示:水汽凝结过程的加入，使锋区垂直运动和锋面环流大大增强，上升运动随时间发生剧烈的变化；湿过程对锋面环流的作用发生在水汽饱和并发生凝结之后，未饱和水汽的存在对锋面环流没有什么作用；与干大气模式中高空西风急流是造成冷锋环流演变的主要因子情况不同，低空南风急流在湿大气中对锋面环流有极为重要的作用，其作用至少与高空西风急流相等；在激发锋区重力波上，低空南风急流的作用可能更加明显；水汽凝结湿过程的加入，不论是在高空西风急流下还是在低空南风急流中，都能在锋区激发出波长约为300 km的重力波，并以大于锋面移速的相速传入暖区。     

Estimation Of Atmospheric Water Vapour Flux Profiles In The Nocturnal Unstable Urban Boundary Layer With Doppler Sodar And Raman Lidar

The vertical wind profiles determined by Doppler sodar and the water vapourmixing ratio profiles obtained by Raman lidar are used to estimate the atmosphericwater vapour flux profiles in the nocturnal urban boundary layer under unstableconditions. The experiment was conducted for several nights in the central areaof Rome under a variety of moisture conditions and different urban boundary-layerflow regimes. Despite some scatter in the profiles, the latent heat flux is found tobe positive throughout the depth of the nocturnal urban boundary-layer. Thelayer-averaged flux shows a variation between -4 to +40 W m^-2, whileindividual values of flux in excess of +150 W m^-2 pertain to a case offree convection during cold air advection caused by the sea breeze. The qualityof flux estimates is found to be highly limited by the low sampling rates employedin the experiment resulting in errors to the order of 60%. Therefore, the results mustbe viewed as estimates rather than precise measurements. The skewness profiles ofthe turbulent fluctuations of vertical velocity and water vapour mixing ratio are alsopositive.     

Simulation of salinity variability and the related freshwater flux forcing in the tropical Pacific: An evaluation using the Beijing normal university earth system model (BNU-ESM)

The climatology and interannual variability of sea surface salinity(SSS) and freshwater flux(FWF) in the equatorial Pacific are analyzed and evaluated using simulations from the Beijing Normal University Earth System Model(BNU-ESM).The simulated annual climatology and interannual variations of SSS, FWF, mixed layer depth(MLD), and buoyancy flux agree with those observed in the equatorial Pacific. The relationships among the interannual anomaly fields simulated by BNU-ESM are analyzed to illustrate the climate feedbacks induced by FWF in the tropical Pacific. The largest interannual variations of SSS and FWF are located in the western-central equatorial Pacific. A positive FWF feedback effect on sea surface temperature(SST) in the equatorial Pacific is identified. As a response to El Ni ?no–Southern Oscillation(ENSO),the interannual variation of FWF induces ocean processes which, in turn, enhance ENSO. During El Ni ?no, a positive FWF anomaly in the western-central Pacific(an indication of increased precipitation rates) acts to enhance a negative salinity anomaly and a negative surface ocean density anomaly, leading to stable stratification in the upper ocean. Hence, the vertical mixing and entrainment of subsurface water into the mixed layer are reduced, and the associated El Ni ?no is enhanced. Related to this positive feedback, the simulated FWF bias is clearly reflected in SSS and SST simulations, with a positive FWF perturbation into the ocean corresponding to a low SSS and a small surface ocean density in the western-central equatorial Pacific warm pool.