Assessment of the soil CO2 gradient method for soil CO2 efflux measurements: comparison of six models in the calculation of the relative gas diffusion coefficient

This paper uses a refined soil gradient method to estimate soil CO₂ efflux. Six different models are used to determine the relative gas diffusion coefficient (ξ). A weighted harmonic averaging is used to estimate the soil CO₂ diffusion coefficient, yielding a better estimate of soil CO₂ efflux. The resulting soil CO₂ efflux results are then compared to the soil CO₂ efflux measured with a soil chamber. Depending on the choice of ξ model used, the estimated soil CO₂ efflux using the gradient method reasonably approximates the efflux obtained using the soil chamber method. In addition, the estimated soil CO₂ efflux obtained by this improved method is well described by an exponential function of soil temperature at a depth of 0.05 m with the temperature sensitivity ( Q ₁₀) of 1.81 and a linear function of soil moisture at a depth of 0.12 m, in general agreement with previous findings. These results suggest that the gradient method is a practical cost-effective means to measure soil CO₂ emissions. Results from the present study suggest that the gradient method can be used successfully to measure soil CO₂ efflux provided that proper attention is paid to the judicious use of the proper diffusion coefficient.     

近44年青藏高原东部积雪的年代际变化特征及其与降雪和气温的关系

选取青藏高原东部地区1967~2010年61个测站的积雪数据,分析比较了整年和不同季节高原积雪的年代际变化特征及其与降雪和气温的关系,结果表明:除了秋季以外,高原东部积雪表现出“少雪-多雪-少雪“的显著年代际变化特征,80年代末发生的由少到多突变仅在冬季积雪中表现显著,20世纪末发生的由多到少突变在冬春两季积雪中均表现显著;降雪和气温的变化是影响高原东部积雪的重要因素,降雪变化的影响更加显著,尤其是秋季降雪;在冬春季降雪偏多时段,降雪的变化主导着积雪的变化;在冬春季降雪偏少时段,气温变化的影响增大,某些时段会超过降雪,甚至达到主导积雪变化的程度。      

高山草甸下垫面夏季近地层能量输送及微气象特征

利用青藏高原东坡理塘站2007年6～8月的观测资料, 分析了高原东坡草甸下垫面夏季近地层气象要素和湍流通量日变化特征, 并用涡动相关法估算地面的曳力系数。结果表明: 水平风速、 动量通量、 摩擦速度等均在下午最大, 早晨最小。二氧化碳浓度表现为早晚高、 中午低的日变化特征, 比湿的最大值出现在早晨。地表辐射、 热量平衡各分量最高值出现在中午, 最低值出现在早晨。地表反照率表现出早晚高中午低的 “U” 型分布, 日平均值为0.164。夏季地面热源强度在白天午后表现为强的热源, 在夜里表现为弱的冷、 热源交替出现。夏季近地层地气热量交换中, 感热输送作用小, 潜热输送占主要地位。     

An updated estimation of radiative forcing due to CO2 and its effect on global surface temperature change

New estimations of radiative forcing due to CO2 were calculated using updated concentration data of CO2 and a high-resolution radiative transfer model. The stratospheric adjusted radiative forcing (ARF) due to CO2 from the year 1750 to the updated year of 2010 was found to have increased to 1.95 Wm－2, which was 17% larger than that of the IPCCs 4th Assessment Report because of the rapid increase in CO2 concentrations since 2005. A new formula is proposed to accurately describe the relationship between the ARF of CO2 and its concentration. Furthermore, according to the relationship between the ARF and surface temperature change, possible changes in equilibrium surface temperature were estimated under the scenarios that the concentration of CO2 increases to 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 and 4 times that of the concentration in the year 2008. The result was values of +2.2℃, +3.8℃, +5.1℃, +6.2℃, +7.1℃ and +8.0℃ respectively, based on a middle－level climate sensitivity parameter of 0.8 K (Wm－2)－1, Non－equilibrium surface temperature changes over the next 500 years were also calculated under two kinds of emission scenarios (pulsed and sustained emissions) as a comparison, according to the Absolute Global Temperature change Potential (AGTP) of CO2. Results showed that CO2 will likely continue to contribute to global warming if no emission controls are imposed, and the effect on the Earth－atmosphere system will be difficult to restore to its original level.     

青藏高原植被指数最新变化特征及其与气候因子的关系

利用GIMMS/NDVI(全球库存模拟和影像研究/归一化植被指数,Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies,Normalized Difference Vegetation Index)和MODIS/NDVI遥感数据以及青藏高原6个气象代表站的站点数据,结合多种统计和计算方法,分析了青藏高原植被NDVI变化规律及其影响因子。结果表明:1982~2013年青藏高原多年平均植被NDVI的空间分布存在明显的区域差异,总体上呈从东南向西北递减的趋势,而且发现不同地区植被的时间变化规律也不尽相同。根据高原长势最好的6~9月植被NDVI进行经验正交分解,将青藏高原植被分为5个区,并进一步分析了不同分区内植被的变化规律,得出:青藏高原植被NDVI下降最明显的区域在二区的噶尔班公宽谷湖盆地地区和北羌塘高原地区,植被NDVI上升最明显的区域在四区的祁连山东部地区。为了探讨青藏高原不同分区内影响植被NDVI下降的因子,从青藏高原二区、四区、五区各选取NDVI处于下降趋势的两个代表站点。研究分析了各个站点植被NDVI与降水量、平均气温、平均最低气温、平均最高气温、日照百分率5个气象因子的关系,得出:在高原二区日照强度是其它分区的两倍左右,而降水量相对较少导致植被NDVI降低。高原四区由于降水量小、温度高、日照强,导致植被NDVI处于下降趋势;在青藏高原五区虽然降水充足,但日照较弱,限制了植被的正常成长导致NDVI处于下降趋势中;其结果为高原植被退化机制研究及高原植被对大气反馈等奠定了基础。     

Ground-Based Atmospheric CO2, CH4, and CO Column Measurements at Golmud in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Comparisons with TROPOMI/S5P Satellite Observations

Measurements of carbon dioxide(CO₂), methane(CH₄), and carbon monoxide(CO) are of great importance in the Qinghai-Tibetan region, as it is the highest and largest plateau in the world affecting global weather and climate systems. In this study, for the first time, we present CO₂, CH₄, and CO column measurements carried out by a Bruker EM27/SUN Fourier-transform infrared spectrometer(FTIR) at Golmud(36.42°E, 94.91°N, 2808 m) in August 2021. The mean and...     

Dynamic responses of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration to global temperature changes between 1850 and 2010

Changes in Earth's temperature have significant impacts on the global carbon cycle that vary at different time scales, yet to quantify such impacts with a simple scheme is traditionally deemed difficult. Here, we show that, by incorporating a temperature sensitivity parameter(1.64 ppm yr~(-1) ?C~(-1)) into a simple linear carbon-cycle model, we can accurately characterize the dynamic responses of atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO_2) concentration to anthropogenic carbon emissions and global temperature changes between 1850 and 2010(r~2 0.96 and the root-mean-square error 1 ppm for the period from 1960onward). Analytical analysis also indicates that the multiplication of the parameter with the response time of the atmospheric carbon reservoir(～12 year) approximates the long-term temperature sensitivity of global atmospheric CO_2concentration(～15 ppm?C~(-1)), generally consistent with previous estimates based on reconstructed CO_2 and climate records over the Little Ice Age. Our results suggest that recent increases in global surface temperatures, which accelerate the release of carbon from the surface reservoirs into the atmosphere, have partially offset surface carbon uptakes enhanced by the elevated atmospheric CO_2 concentration and slowed the net rate of atmospheric CO_2 sequestration by global land and oceans by ～30%since the 1960 s. The linear modeling framework outlined in this paper thus provides a useful tool to diagnose the observed atmospheric CO_2 dynamics and monitor their future changes.     

小麦秸秆还田量对晋南地区裸地土壤—大气间甲烷、二氧化碳、氧化亚氮和一氧化氮交换的影响

采用静态暗箱采样—气相色谱/化学发光分析相结合的方法,对晋南地区盐碱地不同小麦秸秆还田量裸地土壤夏、秋季(2008年6～10月)的甲烷(CH4)、二氧化碳(CO2)、氧化亚氮(N2O)和一氧化氮(NO)交换通量进行了原位观测。结果表明:观测期内,秸秆全还田(FS)、秸秆一半还田(HS)和秸秆不还田(NS)处理土壤—大气间CH4、CO2、N2O和NO平均交换通量分别为-0.8±2.7、-1.4±2.3、-6.5±1.8μg(C).m-2.h-1(CH4),267.1±23.1、212.0±17.8、188.5±13.6mg(C).m-2.h-1(CO2),20.7±3.0、16.3±2.3、14.7±1.7μg(N).m-2.h-1(N2O),3.9±0.5、3.4±0.5、3.0±0.4μg(N).m-2.h-1(NO)。交换通量表现出明显的季节变化趋势,灌溉、降雨和温度变化是影响该趋势的主要因素。相对于NS处理,FS和HS处理降低了累积CH4吸收量(66%和59%),增加了累积CO2(42%和12%)、N2O(41%和9%)和NO(30%和13%)排放量,因此,秸秆还田促进了农田土壤总的温室气体排放。计算得到FS和HS处理小麦秸秆的CO2、N2O、NO排放系数分别为73.4%±1.6%和43.3%±1.0%(CO2)、0.37%±0.01%和0.17%±0.00%(N2O)、0.06%±0.00%和0.05%±0.00%(NO),FS处理的排放系数显著高于HS处理,且均低于同一实验地种植玉米、施肥农田的小麦秸秆排放系数(N2O和NO排放系数分别为2.32%和0.42%)。可见,在采用排放因子方法估算还田秸秆CO2、N2O和NO排放量时,应考虑秸秆还田量、农作物种植和施肥因素的影响。     

区域气候模式REMO对中国气温和降水模拟能力的评估

采用泰勒图和偏差分析等统计方法,评估分析了德国区域气候模式（REMO）对中国1989-2008年气温和降水的模拟能力。结果表明：REMO气温模拟值与观测值空间相关系数为0.94,降水空间相关系数较低（0.42）,气温模拟结果明显优于降水;从空间偏差上看,在中国大部分地区,REMO模拟的气温高于观测值,偏差在±4℃以内,青藏高原整体有明显的-4～-2℃的冷偏差;模拟的降水值则高于观测值,空间偏差分布较均匀,中国大部分地区偏差在±300 mm之内;除青藏高原、华南和西南地区外,REMO能较准确地反映出中国气温和降水的空间分布特征,其中华北和东北地区模拟效果最好;REMO对夏季气温和冬季降水的模拟能力相对较好;REMO在地形起伏较大地区的模拟能力有待提高。     

不同湖泊模式对青藏高原典型湖泊适用性对比研究

一维湖泊模式是青藏高原湖泊研究的主要手段之一,但不同湖泊模式在青藏高原适用性及其差异依然不够明确。利用MODIS地表温度数据、青藏高原鄂陵湖站点观测的气象数据、湖温及湖面能量数据,驱动、评估和对比了目前应用最为广泛的两个一维湖泊模式Freshwater Lake Model(FLake)和Community Land Model version 4.5(CLM4.5)中耦合的湖泊模块在青藏高原典型湖泊的适用性。结果表明:FLake和CLM模式均能较好的对湖泊热力状况进行模拟,CLM模式对于湖表面温度和湖泊内部不同深度的温度模拟优于Flake模式,净辐射和能量的累积也是CLM模式的模拟值更接近观测值。造成Flake模式模拟偏差更大的原因与模式中计算感热、潜热的摩擦速度有关,观测的摩擦速度均值为0.22 m·s-1,CLM模式中的摩擦速度与观测值接近,为Flake模式的1.5倍,将CLM模式中的摩擦速度替换到Flake模式中后模拟结果有明显的改善。     

半干旱草原温室气体排放/吸收与环境因子的关系研究

静态箱一气相色谱法对内蒙古半干旱草原连续两年的实验观测研究结果表明,内蒙古草原是大气CO2和N2O的排放源,而是CH4的汇.在植物生长不同季节,草原生态系统排放/吸收温室气体CO2,CH4和N2O的日变化形式各有不同,其中在植物生长旺季日变化形式最具特征.3种温室气体的季节排放/吸收高峰主要出现在土壤湿度较大的春融和降雨较为集中时期.所有草原植物生长季节CO2净排放日变化形式均为白天出现排放低值,夜间出现排放高值.较高的温度有利于CO2排放,地上生物量决定着光合吸收CO2量值的高低.影响半干旱草原吸收CH4和排放N2O日变化形式的关键是土壤含水量和供氧状况,日温变化则主要影响日变化强度.吸收CH4和排放N2O的季节变化与土壤湿度季节变化分别呈线性反、正相关,相关系数均在0.4～0.6之间.自由放牧使CO2、N2O和CH4交换速率日较差降低,同时使N2O和CH4年度排放/吸收量减少和CO2年度排放量增加.     

中国交通二氧化碳排放研究

评述了中国全国及区域水平交通领域CO₂排放研究的不足和困难,提出了道路运输、铁路运输燃油消费量的估算方法、参数及区域分配方法,并根据文献研究和公开资料进行校对,采用中国交通领域CO₂排放因子,计算中国2007年全国和各省道路运输、铁路运输、航空运输和水路运输的CO₂排放。中国2007年交通领域CO₂排放量为4.36亿t,占2007年全国能源利用CO₂排放的7%,低于2007年全球交通部门23%的排放比例。中国道路运输CO₂排放占交通领域绝对主体,为86.32%。     

多年冻土对青藏高原草地生态承载力的贡献研究

草地生态系统是一个复杂的社会、经济、生态系统,多年冻土作为高寒草地生态系统结构和功能维系的重要因素,是客观刻画高寒草地生态承载力不容忽视的重要方面。文中采用结构动力学方法,从草地质量、草地干预、草地潜力、草地压力4个维度建立高寒草地生态承载力结构动力学模型,分析青藏高原多年冻土区草地生态承载力的变化以及主要结构要素,量化多年冻土变化对青藏高原高寒草地生态承载力的贡献率,结果表明：(1)多年冻土区草地生态承载力呈增加趋势,尤其是1998年以后上升显著,这主要归因于草地生长季节降水增加、气温升高、净初级生产力增幅驱动以及生态保护工程建设的共同作用。(2)多年冻土活动层厚度变化与草地生态承载力呈负相关,多年冻土活动层厚度对草地生态承载力的贡献率约为10%,即多年冻土活动层厚度每增加1个单位,将导致草地生态承载力下降0.1个单位。由于青藏高原空间差异显著,加之气候变化的不确定性,这一贡献水平只是一个粗略的参照值。     

近30年青藏高原年平均0cm地温的分布和变化特征

选取青藏高原40个测站1970～2002年各月平均0cm地温资料，通过EOF、二阶多项式函数和小波分析等方法，对青藏高原年平均0cm地温的时空分布特征进行了研究。结果表明，青藏高原年平均0cm地温EOF展开的第一特征向量反映了高原地温分布的一致性，而第二、三特征向量分别揭示了高原地温分布受到各种中、小尺度天气系统和海拔高度制约的事实。高原地温空间异常可分为4个气候区，即东北部、南部、主体和西部。高原地温各分区代表站的二阶多项式反映出近30年高原东北部地温呈降温趋势；南部呈增温趋势；高原主体和西部具有高一低一高的抛物线型变化趋势。高原地温各分区皆有3a和准7a的振荡周期。     

西藏藏北高原典型植被生长对气候要素变化的响应

选取西藏藏北高原西部高寒草原植被、中部高寒草甸植被及东南部高寒灌丛草甸植被 3 种藏北地区最典型的植被类型, 结合临近 3 个气象观测站的资料, 分析这 3 种典型植被类型地区 1999—2001 年旬平均气温、旬总降水量和 SPOT VEGETATION 卫星 10 d 最大值合成归一化植被指数 (NDVI) 变化特征以及 3 种典型植被基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的生长变化对旬平均气温和旬总降水量两个主要气候要素变化的响应关系。 结果表明: 藏北地区降水资源的空间分布特点是东南部向西北部逐渐减少, 气温则由南向北逐渐递减, 与降水资源分布相反, 蒸发量西部高, 东部低; SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 能够较为准确地反映 3 种典型植被生长变化特征, 所反映的植被返青期和枯黄期等重要植被生长阶段与由积温计算的植被生长特征基本一致; 藏北地区基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的植被生长变化与气温的相关系数明显高于与降水的相关系数 , 其中以那曲为代表的高寒草甸植被的 NDVI 与旬气温和旬降水总量的相关系数最大, 分别为 0.81 和 0.68 , 表明藏北地区由于海拔高, 气候寒冷, 气温对该地区植被生长的影响明显高于降水的影响, 即该地区植被生长变化对气温的响应程度明显高于对降水的响应程度 , 是植被生长的限制性因素; 不同植被类型对气温和降水两个要素的响应程度大小依次是高寒草甸、高寒灌丛草甸和高寒草原。     

Estimation of Nocturnal Area Fluxes of Carbon Cycle Gases in Saint Petersburg Suburbs

Carbon dioxide, methane, and carbon monoxide are the carbon cycle gases, the data on their emissions are needed when monitoring air pollution and developing methods for reducing anthropogenic emissions to the atmosphere and for climate forecasting. The estimates of nocturnal area fluxes for CO₂, CH₄, and CO presented for a suburb of Saint Petersburg (Peterhof) are obtained using the box model and continuous observations of concentration of these gases. The mean values of CH₄, CO₂, and CO fluxes estimated for Peterhof for 2014–2015 are 44 ± 27, 6100 ± 4000, and 90 ± 100 t/(km² year), respectively. The intensity of the CO area flux has pronounced seasonal variations characterized by the maximum of ~(160 ± 120) t/(km² year) in November—February and by the minimum of ~(30 ± 20) t/(km² year) in June-July. The analysis of the ratio of CO/CO₂ fluxes identified the main types of anthropogenic sources typical of Peterhof: motor transport, natural gas combustion, and the use of wood stoves for the heating of private low-rise buildings (in the cold season).     

Analysis of Air Quality in Eastern China and its Interaction with Other Regions of the World

In this study, we used satellite data (GOME and MOPITT) together with a global chemical-transport-model of atmosphere (MOZART-2) to characterize the chemical/aerosol composition over eastern China. We then estimated the effects of local emissions in China on the chemical budgets in other regions of the world. Likewise, we also investigated the effects of air pollution from other regions on the chemical budget over eastern China. The study shows that the column CO and NO _x concentrations are also high in eastern China. The high CO and NO _x concentrations produce modest levels of O₃ concentrations during summer (about 40 to 50 ppbv) and very low O₃ during winter (about 10 to 20 ppbv) in eastern China. The calculated NO₂ column is fairly consistent from the GOME measurement. The calculated CO column is underestimated from the MOPITT measurement. One of the reasons of the underestimation of the predicted CO is due to a fact that the CO emissions were taken without considering the rapid increase of emissions from 1990 to 2000. The calculated surface O₃ is consistent with the measured values, with strong seasonal variations. However, the measurement is very limited, and more measurements in eastern China will be needed. The column NO₂ has a very strong seasonal variation in eastern China, with the highest concentrations during winter and the lowest concentrations during summer. The cause of this seasonal variability is mainly due to the seasonal changes in the chemical loss of NO _x , which is very high in summer and very low during winter. The effects of the local emissions in China and long-range transport from other regions on the chemical distributions in eastern China are studied. The results show that NO _x concentrations in eastern China are mostly caused by the local emissions in China, especially during the winter. The CO concentration over eastern China is from both the local emissions (30% to 40%) and the transport from other regions. Likewise, the CO emissions in China have an important effect on the other regions of the world, but the effect is limited in the northern hemisphere. The local emissions in China also have an important effect on surface O₃ concentrations. During winter, the local emissions reduce the surface O₃ concentrations by 30 to 50%. During summer, the local emissions produce about 50 to 70% of the O₃ concentration in eastern China.     

Assessment of the biospheric contribution to surface atmospheric CO2 concentrations over East Asia with a regional chemical transport model

A regional chemical transport model, RAMS-CMAQ, was employed to assess the impacts of biosphere–atmosphere CO2 exchange on seasonal variations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations over East Asia. Simulated CO2 concentrations were compared with observations at 12 surface stations and the comparison showed they were generally in good agreement. Both observations and simulations suggested that surface CO2 over East Asia features a summertime trough due to biospheric absorption, while in some urban areas surface CO2 has a distinct summer peak, which could be attributed to the strong impact from anthropogenic emissions. Analysis of the model results indicated that biospheric fluxes and fossil-fuel emissions are comparably important in shaping spatial distributions of CO2 near the surface over East Asia. Biospheric flux plays an important role in the prevailing spatial pattern of CO2 enhancement and reduction on the synoptic scale due to the strong seasonality of biospheric CO2 flux. The elevation of CO2 levels by the biosphere during winter was found to be larger than 5ppm in North China and Southeast China, and during summertime a significant depletion( 7 ppm) occurred in most areas,except for the Indo-China Peninsula where positive bioflux values were found.     

麻多高寒湿地冻结过程中土壤热通量变化特征分析

准确量化高寒湿地下垫面冻结过程中土壤热通量的变化特征,对认识高寒湿地—大气间水热交换过程有重要的科学意义。本文利用中国科学院麻多气候与环境综合观测站2014年5月至2015年5月的观测资料,分析了下垫面冻结过程中土壤热通量变化特征,探讨了冻结潜热对土壤热通量的贡献。基于温度积分计算土壤热通量的算法,指出在计算冻结过程中的土壤热通量时,需要同时考虑土壤热通量板以上的土壤热贮存及热通量板以上的冻结潜热。研究表明:（1）冻结锋面形成后,锋面所在深度土壤体积含水量迅速降低,锋面以下土壤热通量接近于零,土壤液态水开始冻结,冻结潜热向上穿过热通量板所在土壤层;降水下渗土壤后冻结所释放的潜热能使次日凌晨5 cm深度土壤热通量接近于零。（2）季节性冻结期,凌晨气温较高时穿过5 cm土壤层的向上土壤热通量很小,可能是由表层土壤发生了日冻融循环所致。土壤水释放的冻结潜热使土壤温度波动减弱并维持在冰点附近。高寒湿地下垫面仅在很浅的表层发生日冻融循环,无法通过5 cm土壤温度资料判断下垫面循环出现日期。（3）加入冻结潜热项,土壤热通量的计算值与实测值之间的均方根误差将会从11.5 W m-2下降到6.2 W m-2。以上研究结果对认识寒区陆面过程有重要的贡献。     

青藏高原积雪日数的气温敏感度分析

根据青藏高原气象台站观测积雪日数和均一化气温数据,对高原1951—2004年积雪日数对气温的敏感度进行了量化分析。研究表明,无论是极值敏感度还是当前气候下的敏感度,空间上都呈现出高原四周积雪较中部对气温的敏感程度高的情况。各台站积雪日数对气温最敏感时的临界气温与海拔有着极好的反相关关系,而极值敏感度与海拔虽然也有一定的反相关,但相关程度远不如前者高。在当前气候状态下,有相当一部分台站的平均气温还未达到临界值,这些台站在秋、冬、春、夏季分别占总台站数的36%、39%、47%和11%。未来气候继续变暖背景下,这部分台站积雪日数对气温的敏感度会进一步加大,即积雪对气温的升高会更加敏感。